Active reading (1)
1 Work in pairs and choose the best answer to the questions.
1 Who was Winston Churchill?
(a) Head of the British Army.
(b) President of the US.
(c) British Prime Minister.
2 Which of these events is Churchill most famously associated with?
(a) World War I.
(b) World War II. (c) The English Civil War.
3 Which of the lines did Churchill say in a speech?
(a) I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.
(a quote from Winston Churchill in 1940 on becoming Prime Minister)
(b) Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.
(a quote from John Kennedy on inauguration as US President, 1961)
(c) In the end, we will remember not the words of our enemies, but the silence of our friends.
(a quote from Martin Luther King Jr.)
2 Read the first paragraph of the passage and predict what the passage is likely to be about.
The passage is .
(a) an extract from a biography of Churchill
(b) a pen portrait of Churchill (c) a comparison of important historical people
Winston Churchill
Reading and understanding
3 Number the events in the order they happened.
5 The allied forces declared victory in World War II.
3 Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty.
4 Churchill became Prime Minister.
1 Churchill fought in the Boer War.
6 Churchill lost the general election.
2 Churchill elected to the British Parliament.
4 Choose the best way to complete the sentences.
1 In the summer of 1940, Britain (a).
(a) was likely to be attacked by another country
(b) was surrounded by enemies
(c) was intending to attack another country
(d) had been attacked by another country
2 Churchill suggested that Britain (b).
(a) would win a terrible victory
(b) needed to fight a difficult war
(c) must prevent a terrible crime
(d) was a democratic country
3 Winston’s father thought he was (c).
(a) an intelligent and handsome boy who would be rich
(b) a strong and brave boy who would fight for his country
(c) a weak, miserable boy, unlikely to be successful
(d) a hard-working boy who would follow in the family tradition
4 The writer suggests that as an MP Churchill (d).
(a) promoted the interests of trade unionists
(b) was not interested in law and order
(c) disliked the attitude of the suffragettes
(d) used the army to suppress people who wanted to change society
5 The writer suggests that Churchill’s early ambition was (a).
(a) to be an important military man
(b) to play with soldiers
(c) to win a war
(d) to live in a palace
6 Winston fought as an ordinary soldier because (c).
(a) he was married to a younger woman
(b) he became depressed
(c) he felt guilty about a battle that went wrong
(d) he wanted to write about the war
7 In 1940 Churchill (b).
(a) agreed with Neville Chamberlain
(b) inspired people to believe they could win the war
(c) declared that the King wanted him to be Prime Minister
(d) won a victory at Agincourt
8 At the end of the passage, the writer suggests that Britain (d).
(a) no longer needed democracy
(b) had forgotten all about Churchill
(c) summed up the character of Churchill
(d) had survived the war thanks to Churchill
5 Choose the best summary of the passage.
3 Churchill came from a famous family and was a soldier and politician. When Churchill became Prime Minister in 1940, Britain was at war. Churchill made speeches that inspired the nation, and led the country to victory. Although he was considered a great military leader, Churchill lost the general election after the war. Dealing with unfamiliar words
6 Match the words in the box with their definitions.
1 willing to accept someone else’s beliefs or way of life without criticizing them (tolerant)
2 a system of government in which people vote in elections to choose the people who will govern them
(democracy)
3 willing to support, work for or be a friend to someone, even in difficult times (loyal)
4 being famous and admired for a special skill or achievement (renowned)
5 the things that you will do or the type of person that you will become in the future (destiny)
6 a peaceful and private place where you can go in order to rest (retreat)
7 to frighten or hurt someone who is smaller and weaker than you (bully)
7 Complete the paragraph with the correct form of the words in Activity 6.
Churchill believed that he was (1) destined to lead his country. He fought as a soldier in World War I
and led the country to victory in World War II. It seems ironic that a leader of such (2) renown as Churchill
could not count on the (3) loyalty of voters in 1945. However, in a (4) democratic country, electors cannot
be (5) bullied, and he had to (6) tolerate political defeat after military victory, and went once more to his
country (7) retreat, Chartwell.
8 Replace the underlined words with the correct form of the words and expressions in the box.
1 His achievements were so great that they can never be bettered. (surpassed) 2 The situation can only get worse; it will never improve. (degenerate)
3 Although he was a rich man, his clothes were of poor quality and in bad condition. (shabby)
4 He exchanged his position as a general for that of an ordinary soldier. (swapped) 5 At the beginning of World War II the King turned to Churchill to lead the country. (onset) 6 Churchill drank a lot of alcohol. (liquor) 7 Churchill wanted to do something to show he was sorry for his mistake at the battle of Gallipoli. (make amends) 9 Answer the questions about the words and expressions.
1 If a government is a monstrous tyranny, is it (a) terrible and oppressive, or (b) democratic and tolerant?
2 If something is lamentable, is it (a) surprising, or (b) disappointing?
3 If you pack someone off, do you (a) protect them, or (b) send them away?
4 If someone talks with a stammer, do they talk (a) in a confident way, or (b) with difficulty?
5 Does double up as mean (a) to do two jobs at the same time, or (b) to do a
job more than once?
6 Is a dispatch (a) a report that you send, or (b) something you experience?
7 Is sanity (a) a mental illness, or (b) the ability to think and speak reasonably?
8 If you suffer a bout of flu, does the flu last (a) a short time, or (b) a long time?
9 Does unswervingly describe someone whose feelings (a) often change, especially if circumstances
change, or (b) are constant, even if circumstances are difficult?
10 If you brandish something, do you (a) hide it in a pocket, or (b) wave it in the air?
11 Does infuriating describe someone who (a) makes you angry, or (b) is very easy to get on with?
12 Is eccentricity (a) strange and unusual behaviour, or (b) normal behaviour?
Reading and interpreting
10 Look at the sentences from the passage and answer the questions.
1 In the summer of 1940, Britain stood alone on the brink of invasion. At that crucial time, one man, Winston Churchill, defined what it meant to be British. In what way do you think Churchill personified Britain?
The leader of a country represents it. Churchill’s determination to win and strength of character
summed up the nation’s feelings.
2 You ask what is our policy? … You ask what is our aim? Who asks these questions? Who answers them? What effect does this have?
The people who ask these questions are the members of Parliament he was addressing, and beyond them the British people wondering what their new government would do. By answering them Churchill shows his leadership. The questions also give the speech form and rhythm.
3 … with all our might and with all our strength … Might and strength have similar meanings, why are both words used?
The use of these two words which are similar in meaning creates emphasis (as do the two alls), and so expresses determination as well as a warning that it will be a total struggle. There is also perhaps a reassurance that the country has considerable resources. 4 People talk of 1066, of the Armada, of Trafalgar. But 1940 was the most important year in British history. It was the year of Dunkirk, the Battle of Britain, the Blitz. The first set of battles covered more than 700 years of British history. The second set all happened in
1940. What is the effect of putting these lists together?
It shows how much was packed into that one year of total crisis. It was equal to all that went before. 5 If Britain–its eccentricity, its strength of character, its big-heartedness–had to be summed up in one person, it was him. Does a nation have a character? What is the writer saying about Britain and about Churchill?
The writer thinks a country has certain values its people believe in and therefore try to show. These are the qualities he thinks are treasured by the British, ones which Churchill had in full. It is possible that patriotism gives each country a rather exaggerated sense of its own virtues, but it is also true that
different cultures do emphasize different aspects of life Active reading (2)
2 Work in pairs. Choose the best answer to the questions.
1 What is a historical fact?
(a) Anything that happened in the past.
(b) Something significant that happened in the past.
Comment: (a) is true in a sense, but most facts like that are of no interest or can be easily forgotten. To
really become part of history the fact must be worth recalling.
2 What does a historian do?
(a) Establish accurately what happened in the past.
(b) Decide which facts are important and interpret their significance. Comment: Historians need true facts, which are not much use until they are interpreted and used. So (a)
has some truth, but (b) far more. The historian and his facts
Reading and understanding
3 Answer the questions.
1 What is the relationship between archaeology and history?
Archaeology is an auxiliary science of history, for example, it supplies facts which can then be
interpreted by historians, eg pottery is dug up and dated so we know a certain group lived there at a
certain time. This may or may not affect our view of the past.
2 Why does the writer say it is not true that “facts speak for themselves”?
There are an infinite number of facts about the past. They only matter if we pay attention to them and
see them as significant.
3 How and why are historians selective?
Historians present us with facts which they think give us an understanding about the past, and choose
ones which support their ideas. 4 What is the difference between a fact about the past and a fact of history?
A fact about the past is anything which ever happened; a fact of history is a fact which historians debate the meaning of and regard as significant for understanding the tale of humanity.
4 Check () the true statements.
1 Historians only need to record facts accurately.
2 Historians need to know how to determine the origins of historical facts.
√ 3 Historians select the facts they need to support their interpretation.
√ 4 Historians decided that Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon was a significant historical event.
√ 5 People continue to believe in the existence of facts without a historian’s interpretation, even though
such a belief is ridiculous.
6 The event at Stalybridge Wakes in 1850 is a well-established historical fact.
Dealing with unfamiliar words
5 Match the words in the box with their definitions.
1 a written or spoken comment about something that you have seen, heard or felt (observation)
2 wood used for building houses or making furniture (timber)
3 secondary, not principal or main (auxiliary)
4 a small piece of a larger object that has broken, often into a lot of pieces (fragment) 5 very detailed and complicated (elaborate)
6 the process of choosing one person or thing from a group (selection)
7 not important and not worth worrying about (petty)
8 a serious disagreement (dispute)
9 to make a formal suggestion (propose) 6 Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in Activity 5.
1 His proposal proved popular and the meeting accepted it unanimously.
2 It’s the elaboration / elaborateness of the decoration that makes the building special.
3 The evidence was very fragmentary and it was difficult to get a complete picture.
4 The historian selects the important facts and arranges them to fit his theory.
5 Restoration is an auxiliary science which helps art historians find out the age
of a painting and the artist.
6 The pettiness of his arguments meant that they weren’t important or worth taking seriously.
7 These ancient timbered buildings were constructed of wood from the nearby forest.
8 They disputed the truth of the theories for a long time.
9 They observed that there was more than one interpretation of the facts.
7 Answer the questions about the words and expressions.
1 Does decipher mean to (a) read a text easily, or (b) work out the meaning of a secret or obscure text?
2 Is an inscription (a) something written or carved on something to record an important event, or (b)
something recorded or spoken?
3 Is a motto (a) a short statement of what someone believes, or (b) an extended argument?
4 Is orientation likely to mean (a) a way of doing something, or (b) an attitude
or belief?
5 Is a fallacy likely to be (a) a mistaken belief, or (b) something that’s obviously true?
6 If you eradicate something, do you (a) establish it, or (b) remove it completely?
7 Is a seconder someone who (a) comes second in a race, or (b) supports a proposition at a meeting?
8 If someone or something relapses, does it (a) return to its previous state, or (b) disappear?
9 If someone does something gallantly, do they do it (a) daringly and successfully, or (b) bravely, but
unsuccessfully?
Language in use
thanks to …
1 Rewrite the sentences using thanks to …
1 Because of Churchill’s leadership and example, we showed courage and
determination.
Thanks to Churchill’s leadership and example, we showed courage and determination.
2 Because of their loyalty to king and country, young Winston was brought up to serve the UK.
Thanks to their loyalty to king and country, young Winston was brought up to serve the UK. 3 At school he was bullied because of his lisp, stammer and ill-health.
At school he was bullied thanks to his lisp, stammer and ill-health.
4 Because of his dispatches from the Boer War, he returned to England as a hero.
Thanks to his dispatches from the Boer War, he returned to England as a hero.
5 Because of school holidays playing in Blenheim Palace, he had always wanted to be a general.
Thanks to school holidays playing in Blenheim Palace, he had always wanted to be a general.
6 He lost his job as First Lord of the Admiralty because of the disaster at Gallipoli.
He lost his job as First Lord of the Admiralty thanks to the disaster at Gallipoli.
7 Because of his wife Clementine, he managed to control his depression.
Thanks to his wife Clementine, he managed to control his depression.
8 Because of his prediction about Germany, King George VI invited him to form a government.
Thanks to his prediction about Germany, King George VI invited him to form a government.
unpacking complex sentences
2 Look at the sentences from the passage The historian and his facts and answer the questions.
1 To praise a historian for his accuracy is like praising an architect for using well-seasoned timber or properly mixed concrete in his building. (a) What is the main verb?
The main verb is is.
(b) What is like praising an architect?
To praise a historian.
(c) What kind of historian and architect are compared?
Good, efficient historians and architects are compared.
2 It is precisely for matters of this kind that the historian is entitled to rely on what have been called the “auxiliary sciences” of history – archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, chronology, and so forth. (a) What is the main verb?
The main verb is is (the first one).
(b) What are examples of the auxiliary sciences of history?
archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, chronology.
(c) Why is the historian entitled to rely on them?
Because they are scientific fields with reliable results.
3 In spite of C. P. Scott’s motto, every journalist knows today that the most effective way to influence opinion is by the selection and arrangement of the appropriate facts. (a) What is the main verb?
The main verb is knows.
(b) What do journalists want to know?
The most effective way to influence opinion.
(c) How do they do this?
By the selection and arrangement of the appropriate facts.
(d) Does C. P. Scott’s motto support this way of doing things?
No, C. P. Scott, a famous newspaper editor, said “Comment is free, but facts are sacred.” The motto
doesn’t support this way of doing things.. 4 The fact that you arrived in this building half an hour ago on foot, or on a bicycle, or in a car, is just as much a fact about the past as the fact that Caesar crossed the Rubicon. (a) What is the first fact? How many alternative first facts does it have?
The first fact is about how you arrived. There are two alternatives: You arrived on a bicycle or in a car.
(b) What is the main verb?
The main verb is is.
(c) What is as much a fact about the past as Caesar crossing the Rubicon?
How you arrived. 5 It may be that in the course of the next few years we shall see this fact appearing first in footnotes, then in the text, of articles and books about 19th-century England, and that in 20 or 30 years’ time it may be a well-established historical fact. (a) What’s the main verb?
The main verb is may be.
(b) When will this fact first appear?
In the course of next few years. (c) Where will it first appear?
It will first appear in footnotes of articles and books about 19-century England. (d) Where will it appear next?
The text of articles and books about 19-century England.
(e) What will happen next?
It will be regarded as a well-established historical fact. (f) When will it happen?
In 20 or 30 years’ time. collocations
3 Read the explanations of the words. Answer the questions.
1 swap This word usually means to replace one thing with another.
(a) So what happens when a student in China swaps places with a student in the US?
The Chinese student goes to America and the American student comes to China.
(b) If two families each has a house, what happens when they agree to do a
house swap?
Family A goes to live in Family B’s house and vice versa.
(c) What happens if you take an item of clothing back to a shop and swap it for another size or colour?
You hand back the first one and the shop gives you another one of different size / colour without any further payment.
2 loyal When you’re loyal to someone, you’re willing to work for someone or be their friend even in
difficult circumstances.
(a) What kind of person is a loyal customer?
One who always uses the products or services of a particular business, eg the customer only buys
drinks / coffee in Starbucks.
(b) Why do shops offer customers a loyalty card?
To encourage customers to keep on coming back. (c) If you have mixed loyalties towards two people or organizations, do you want to be loyal to both or
neither?
Both.
3 dispute A dispute is a serious disagreement, especially one between groups of people that lasts for a
long time.
(a) What kind of facts are beyond dispute?
The facts no one argues against.
(b) If something is in dispute, do people agree or disagree about it?
People disagree about it.
(c) If something is open to dispute, do people agree or disagree about it?
People disagree about it – it is a matter of opinion.
4 observation This word refers to the process of watching someone or something carefully, in order to
find out about it. An observation is a comment about something you have seen, heard or felt.
(a) If someone makes an interesting observation about someone or
something, what do they do?
They make an interesting comment about it which attracts the listener. (b) If you enter hospital under observation, what are the doctors trying to do?
The doctors are watching you to see how your problem develops.
(c) What would a soldier do from an observation post?
To keep watch on what is happening nearby.
5 petty This word usually means small, unimportant or minor.
(a) What kind of crime is a petty crime?
Such crimes as shoplifting sweets, not paying your bus fare etc. (b) Do you think petty cash is a large or small amount of money?
Petty cash is a small amount of money, eg cash kept in an office for paying any small charges such as extra postage.
(c) Is a petty officer in the navy likely to be of high or low rank?
A petty officer in the navy is likely to be of low rank.
4 Translate the paragraph into Chinese.
The historian is not required to have the special skills which enable the expert to determine the origin and
period of a fragment of pottery or marble, to decipher an obscure inscription, or to make the elaborate
astronomical calculations necessary to establish a precise date. These so-called basic facts which are the
same for all historians commonly belong to the category of the raw materials of the historian rather than
of history itself. The second observation is that the necessity to establish these basic facts rests not on any
quality in the facts themselves, but on a priori decision of the historian. In spite of C. P. Scott’s motto,
every journalist knows today that the most effective way to influence opinion is by the selection and
arrangement of the appropriate facts. It used to be said that facts speak for themselves. This is, of course,
untrue. The facts speak only when the historian calls on them: It is he who decides to which facts to give
the floor, and in what order or context. It was, I think, one of Pirandello’s characters who said that a fact
is like a sack – it won’t stand up till you’ve put something in it. The only reason why we are interested
to know that the battle was fought at Hastings in 1066 is that historians regard it as a major historical
event. It is the historian who has decided for his own reasons that Caesar’s crossing of that petty stream,
the Rubicon, is a fact of history, whereas the crossing of the Rubicon by millions of other people before
or since interests nobody at all. The fact that you arrived in this building half an hour ago on foot, or on a
bicycle, or in a car, is just as much a fact about the past as the fact that Caesar crossed the Rubicon.
历史学家不需要掌握特殊的技能去确定陶瓷或大理石残片的起源与断代、解读一段意义隐晦的铭文的
含义、或是为确定一个准确的日期而进行繁复的天文计算。这些所谓的基本事实对所有的历史学家来
说都是一样的，它们是历史学家可用的原始素材，而非历史本身。我要说的第二点是，之所以有必要
确定这些基本的事实并不取决于事实的可靠性，而是取决于历史学家事先做出的判断。尽管C.P.司各特
的那句箴言深入人心（注：司各特的箴言comments are free, but facts are sacred.“事实不可歪曲，评述 大可自由”），但是现在每一名新闻记者都知道要影响大众舆论，最有效的方式就是对特定的事实进 行选择和剪接。人们以前常说事实不言自明。这种说法显然是错误的，历史事实只是在历史学家用到 时才会不言自明。哪些事实可以现身说法，以及这些事实以什么样的顺序或是在什么样的情景中出现
都是由历史学家来决定的。 我记得皮兰德娄笔下的一个人物曾经说过：事实就像一个麻袋——不塞点
东西进去就立不起来。我们之所以对1066年发生在黑斯廷斯的战役感兴趣的唯一原因就是历史学家把
这一战役看作是一个重大的历史事件。历史学家们依照自己的推断，认为凯撒穿越那条小河——卢比
孔河——是一个史实，但没有人对在他之前或是之后几百万其他人穿过这条河的举动感兴趣。你半个
小时之前或徒步、或骑车或开车来到这幢大楼，这件事和当年凯撒渡过卢比孔河一样都是一个关于过 去的客观事实。(☞ 这一段长句较集中。第二句的定语从句译成汉语时可拆分成并列句。注意 a priori
decision和the appropriate facts 的译法。)
5 Translate the paragraphs into English.
为保证校园的安全，校方最近发布了一项新的规定，禁止小商贩进入校园。校长呼吁学生在这件事上
与学校合作。学生们表示强烈反对，几百名学生在学校的BBS上表达了他们的愤怒。他们说，因为校
园离市中心很远，校内商店里的货品又不多，把小贩赶出校园就无异于把学生扔到孤岛上。有些人提
出，正是在这样的事情上，学校应该听取学生的意见和需求。有些学生认为，这项规定能让校园更安
全的想法是错误的。
学生的反应让校长感到震惊，为弥补过失，他宣布学校将重新考虑这项规定。他对学生说，他们完全
有权力过上方便、舒适的生活，但校园的安全也同样重要。他还提议在校园里建一个大超市，在宿
舍楼附近开一些便利店 (convenience store)，这样就能大大方便学生们的生活。(it’s for matters of this
kind; get sth wrong; make amends; be entitled to)
To make the campus safer, the university authorities recently released a new regulation that forbids any vendors from entering the campus, and the president called on the students to cooperate with the university on this matter. But the students’ opposition was strong, and hundreds of them expressed their anger on the university BBS. They said that to keep vendors off campus is like deserting the students on an island,
as the university was far away from the downtown and the shops on the campus did not provide enough
commodities. Some claimed that it was precisely for matters of this kind that university should listen to
students’ opinions and needs. Some students thought the university had got it wrong in believing that this
regulation will ensure safety on campus.
Shocked by the students’ reaction, the president tried to make amends for his mistake by announcing that
the university will look into this new regulation again. He told students that they were entitled to live a convenient and comfortable life, but safety is just as much an important concern as that. He proposed to build a big supermarket within the campus and some convenient stores near dormitory buildings, which would certainly make students’ life much easier. Translation of the passages
Active reading (1)
温斯顿·丘吉尔
1940 年夏天，英国面临外敌入侵，孤立无援。在这危急时刻，有一个人——温斯顿·丘吉尔——
挺身而出，显示了英国人的英雄本色。我们英国人喜欢把自己看成是一个宽容而坚忍
的民族。但是丘
吉尔以他卓越的领导才能和光辉的榜样让我们看到，当我们所珍视的一切——我们的民主、我们的自
由——受到威胁的时候，我们会展示出无与伦比的勇气和决心。
“我所能奉献的唯有热血、辛劳、眼泪和汗水。你问我们的政策是什么？我会说我们的政策就是
在海、陆、空全面开战。竭尽全力，尽上帝赋予我们的全部力量去战斗，和黑暗的、可悲的人类罪恶
史上最穷凶极恶的暴政作战。你问我们的目标是什么？我可以用一个词来回答，那就是胜利。不惜一
切代价，去夺取胜利。战胜一切恐怖，去夺取胜利。不论前方的道路多么漫长、多么艰辛，一定要夺
取胜利。”
在这样一个时刻，英国必须显示出她最伟大的一面。而在丘吉尔身上，我们看到了一个最伟大的
英国人。
1874 年温斯顿·丘吉尔出生于英国一个极为显赫的家庭。丘吉尔家族世代为国王和国家出生
入死，征战沙场。温斯顿年轻的时候一直相信他会继承父业。但是他一直能够保持自信却与他的家
庭无关，他的家人并没有给他多少支持。他的父亲伦道夫·丘吉尔勋爵（1849-1895）和母亲珍妮
（1854-1921）都是冷漠、拒人于千里之外的人。他们把温斯顿送到了哈罗公学。他既不英俊又不聪明；
他体弱多病，说话口齿不清，还结巴。他是那种在学校里注定要被人欺负的学生——实际情况也是
如此。温斯顿的父亲不仅没有给他支持和帮助，还预测他的儿子将来会“沦落到穷困潦倒，一事无成，
抑郁而终的地步”。
离开学校之后，经过三次努力他进入了位于桑赫斯特的英国皇家陆军军官学校。从桑赫斯特毕业
之后，他就找地方打仗去——什么地方都行。他自费兼任战地记者。他在报道中把自己宣传成布尔战
争的英雄。1900 年回到英国的时候，他已经名满天下，为当选国会议员铺平了道路。
同年，他代表奥德姆市当选为保守党国会议员。他一度转投自由党，后来又重回保守党。他
从来不是一个热衷于党派斗争的人。他只关心英国的前途和命运。他理想中的英国是普通百姓安
居乐业的地方，但同时他又非常看重法律和社会秩序。尽管他不是一个邪恶的人，但他对妇女参
政论者、工团主义者以及任何想要挑战现行体制的人冷酷无情，他首先想到的手段就是动用军队
镇压。
但是他一直想做一个将军。这种理想可以追溯到他的学生时代。学校放假的时候，他就在布伦
海姆宫的走廊里、在他那些战功卓著的祖先的织锦画像下玩玩具士兵，那时候他就萌生了这种理想。
1911 年，被任命为海军大臣的时候，他一定非常高兴；1915 年，当第一次世界大战让他有机会制定
加利波利重大攻势计划的时候，他更是欣喜万分。
但是加利波利战役以惨败收场，让温斯顿丢掉了饭碗，也使他几乎精神崩溃。丘吉尔第一次犯严
重的抑郁症就是从那个时候开始的，他把这个让他痛苦不堪的疾病称为他的“黑狗”（沮丧）。值得庆
幸的是，此时他已经娶妻成家。他的妻子克莱门泰因帮他度过了难关。她比他小11 岁，美丽、聪明、
忠贞不渝。她让他振作起来，但最终丘吉尔以自己特有的方式走出了抑郁。为弥补他的过失，他奔赴
法国战场，在战壕中浴血奋战。在第一次世界大战中，大概没有几个士兵会像他那样从战场上写信回
家说他“感觉到了几个月来没有过的幸福和满足”。他就是为战争而生的。
当丘吉尔回到英国的时候，他已经成就了丰功伟业。他曾是一名成功的记者，他曾为国家浴血奋
战，他曾经身居高位。在20 世纪20 年代他再次官居要职，担任财务大臣。但是到了1930 年，工党
开始执政，而他只是一名后座议员，一个无足轻重的小人物，一个过气的政客。30 年代的大部分时间，
他都在他的乡间别墅查特威尔庄园里闲坐度日。
1938 年9 月，时任首相的内维尔· 张伯伦（1869-1940）公开挥舞着他和阿道夫·希特勒
（1889-1945）签订的和平协议，宣告他已经确保了我们这个时代的和平。你甚至都可以听到人
们如释重负地松了一口气。但是丘吉尔并不这么认为。他预测到了——比任何人都要早地预测
到——德国的民族主义会走向何方。事态的发展证明他是对的。战争爆发了，英国国王乔治六世
（1895-1952）知道“要组建一个能赢得全国信任的政府，我只能去请一个人，那就是温斯顿。”
任命下来的时候，丘吉尔已经65 岁了。为这一天他等了很久，但上天最终还是把大任降到了他
的身上。
人们经常会说起1066 年的诺曼征服，说起击败西班牙无敌舰队的壮举，提到特拉法尔加战役这
些重要的历史事件。但其实1940 年才是英国历史上最为重要的一年。敦刻尔克大撤
退、不列颠之战、
德国空袭英国都发生在这一年。在这一年，每一个英国人，不管是平民还是士兵，都发现自己处于
战争之中。英国似乎不可能赢得这场战争，但是温斯顿用400 年前阿金库尔战役中那个表示胜利的V
字手势告诉我们我们能够取得胜利。
丘吉尔是一个直觉敏锐、大胆、常常令人恼火的战争领袖。他对部下粗鲁，令人厌恶。他工作起
来不要命，喝起酒来也不要命，这让他的部下疲于应付。但同时他也鼓舞了无数人。1945 年5 月8 日，
欧洲最终宣布战争胜利，英国随即举行了大选。许多告示牌上写着“为丘吉尔喝彩，给工党投票”，
后来人们的确是这么做的。这真是充满了讽刺意味。丘吉尔随时准备誓死保卫的民主国家知道和平时
代的需求和战时的需求是不一样的。
1965 年，丘吉尔去世，刚刚进入摇滚乐时代的英国举国皆哀。如果要用一个人来代表英国的怪僻、
坚强的个性、宽大的胸怀，那就是丘吉尔。丘吉尔已经离我们而去，但正是因为有了他，英国才得以
存活下来。还有什么比这更伟大的业绩呢？__
Active reading (2)
历史学家与他的史实
什么是史实？我们要稍稍进一步深入地审视这个关键的问题。按照一般的常识判断，确定的基
本史实对所有历史学家都是一样的，可以说，它们构成了历史的基石——比如黑斯廷斯战役发生在
1066 年。但是有必要针对这一观点提出两点评论意见。首先，历史学家首先关注的并不是这样的史
实。当然，了解这样一个史实毫无疑问是很重要的，即那场伟大的战役发生在1066 年，而不是1065
年或1067 年，发生在黑斯廷斯而不是在伊斯特本或是布赖顿。历史学家不能弄错这样的史实。但是
当人们提出这样的看法时，我想起了豪斯曼说过的话“准确是本分，而并非美德”。赞扬一位历史学
家所采用的史料准确，就像称赞一个建筑师盖房子的时候用的木材干燥，混凝土调配得当一样。准确
是他工作的必要条件，但不是他的基本职能。正是在这类事情上，历史学家可以依靠像考古学、铭文
学、钱币学、年代学等等这些被称为历史“辅助科学”的学科。历史学家不需要掌握特殊的技能去确
定陶瓷或大理石残片的起源与断代、解读一段意义隐晦的铭文的含义、或是为确定一个准确的日期而
进行繁复的天文计算。这些所谓的基本事实对所有的历史学家来说都是一样的，它们是历史学家可用
的原始素材，而非历史本身。我要说的第二点是，之所以有必要确定这些基本的事实并不取决于事实
的可靠性，而是取决于历史学家事先做出的判断。尽管C.P. 司各特的那句箴言深入人心（注：司各
特的箴言comments are free, but facts are sacred.“事实不可歪曲，评述大可自由”），但是现在每一名
新闻记者都知道要影响大众舆论，最有效的方式就是对特定的事实进行选择和剪接。人们以前常说事
实不言自明。这种说法显然是错误的，历史事实只是在历史学家用到时才会不言自明。哪些事实可以
现身说法，以及这些事实以什么样的顺序或是在什么样的情景中出现都是由历史学家来决定的。我记
得皮兰德娄笔下的一个人物曾经说过：事实就像一个麻袋——不塞点东西进去就立不起来。我们之所
以对1066 年发生在黑斯廷斯的战役感兴趣的唯一原因就是历史学家把这一战役看作是一个重大的历
史事件。历史学家们依照自己的推断，认为凯撒穿越那条小河——卢比孔河——是一个史实，但没有
人对在他之前或是之后几百万其他人穿过这条河的举动感兴趣。你半个小时之前或徒步、或骑车或开
车来到这幢大楼，这件事和当年凯撒渡过卢比孔河一样都是一个关于过去的客观事实。但是历史学家
不太可能会去注意你到达这座大楼这件事。塔尔科特·帕森斯教授曾经把科学称为“对现实认知取
向的一种选择性体系”。这一点或许可以用更简单的话来表述。但是历史的一个重要特点就是它的选
择性。历史学家必然要选择史实。有人坚信史实是确实存在的，是客观的，不为历史家的阐释而左右。
这种见解非常荒谬，但却难以根除。
现在让我们来看一下一个关于过去的事实是怎样变成史实的。1850 年，在斯泰利布里奇的守护
神节那天，一个卖姜饼的小贩因为一点小事儿与人发生口角，被一群愤怒的暴民故意活活踢死。这是
一个史实吗？要是在一年前，我肯定会毫不犹豫地说“不是”。这件事被一个目击者记载在了一本鲜
为人知的回忆录上，但是我从来没有看到哪位历史学家提及此事。但是在一年前，基特森·克拉克
博士在牛津大学的福特系列讲座上提到了这个事件。这样它就变成史实了吗？我想还没有。我认为，
在这个对入会标准有严格规定的史实俱乐部里，这个事件现在的地位相当于候选会员。它现在正在等
待附议者和担保人。也许在接下来的几年中，我们会看到这个事实首先出现在关于19 世纪英国的文
章和书籍的脚注当中，然后可能会出现在文本中。过二三十年，它也许就是一个确定无疑的史实了。
另外还有一种可能，就是再也没人提起这件事。这样它就会重新被湮没在关于过去的那些非历史的事
实堆中而被人遗忘，基特森·克拉克博士拯救它的英勇努力也就付之东流了。这两种可能性哪一种
会发生呢？又取决于什么呢？我想这取决于其他历史学家是否认为基特森·克拉克博士引用这个事__
件来证明的论点或者阐释言之有据，并且具有重大意义。这个事件作为史实的地位取决于历史学家的
阐释。而任何一个史实都会含有阐释的成分。
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