语言学的定义：
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language
→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:
①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.
②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.
③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 普通语言学
问题: What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study
→phonetics语音学→the study of sounds
→phonology音位学→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning
→morphology形态学→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.
→syntax句法学→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics语义学→the study of meaning
→pragmatics语用学→ the context of language use
Sociolinguistics社会语言学：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.
Psycholinguistics语言心理学：Relate the study of language to psychology Applied linguistics应用语言学：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. Some important distinctions in linguistics: ①prescriptive规定性/descriptive描写性 ②synchronic共时/diachronic历时 ③speech口语/writing书面语
④langue语言/parole言语the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics
⑤competence语言能力/performance语言应用the American linguist N. Chomsky ⑥traditional grammar 传统语法/modern linguistics现代语言学
问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar
①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. ②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. ③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why
In modern linguistics, a synchronic 不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的 approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic 探求现象变化的, 历时的 one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.
问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing
From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic. 语言的定义：
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design features of language7个识别特征
①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level ②productivity 能产性,创造性
Secondary units底层结构 sounds ③duality 双层性 Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning
④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction ⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性 ⑥interchangeability 互换性 ⑦convention 约定性
Functions of language： 三大主要功能：
The descriptive function The expressive function The social function
Roman Jacobson6种首要因素,结构主义语言学家 ①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能 ②addressee→conative 意动功能
③context→referential所指功能 ④message→poetic 诗学功能
⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能 ⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能 Other functions:
①phatic function 问候功能 ②informative f. 信息功能 ③interrogative f. 询问功能 ④expressive f. 表达功能 ⑤evocative f. 感染功能 ⑥directive f. 指令功能
⑦performative f. 行使权力功能 ①ideational
②interpersonalindicate/establish/maintain/social relationships ③textual 问题：
How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance
The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.
The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.
Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, ., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. 问题：
What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system
①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level ②productivity 能产性,创造性
Secondary units底层结构 sounds ③duality 双层性 Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning
④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction ⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性 ⑥interchangeability 互换性 ⑦convention 约定性
Chapter 2 Phonology
Phonetics: 语音学
①the study of the phonic medium of language
②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view. Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory
phonetics发音语音学
Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics
听觉语音学
Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics声学语音学
③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:
⒈three important areas
① The pharyngeal cavity→the throat ② the oral cavity→the mouth ③ the nasal cavity→the nose
⒉ The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords
⒊ the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palatevelum/hard palate/teeth ridgealveolus /teeth/lips
International Phonetic Alphabet IPA ①diacritics 附加符号
②broad transcription宽式标音→the transcription with letter-symbols only ③narrow transcription严式标音→the transcription with letter-symbols
together with the diacritics
Classification of English speech sounds
①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants ②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner of
articulation
In terms of place of articulation
③In terms of manner of articulation:
Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides ④In terms of place of articulation:
Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal ⑤ bilabiLabio-dentdentaalveolpalatvelaglottal al l ar al r al stops VL p t k VD b d g fricatiVL f θ s h ves affricates VD VL v e z t t VD d d nasals VD m n liquids VD l/r glides VD w j Classification of English vowels ⒈criteria :monophthongs单元音
The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back
The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-open
vowels/open vowels
The shape of the lips: unrounded/rounded The length of the vowels: tense/lax front central back close i: i u: u : Semi-close Semi-open open e : a: a ⒉diphthongs 双元音 / ei / / ai / / au / / u / / i / / i / /ε/ / u /
Phonology 音韵学,语音体系
Difference of phonology and phonetics:
① Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
② Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phone音素: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme音位: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast音位对立
Complementary distribution音位变体的互补分布 Minimal pairs最小对立体：含音位的单词的全部音标
Minimal set最小对立集：is used to find the important sounds in language. Phonological Analysis音位分析
Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.
Phonetically similar sounds: 描述音位关系 Free variants: 音位的自由变体
The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. Some rules in phonology ①sequential rules: 序列规则
If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: The first phoneme must be / s /
The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k / The third phoneme must be / l Syllable
音节：A syllable nucleus often a vowel with optional initial and final margins often consonants 单音节词 多音节词
英语单词都有重读
音位学中,单词由音节构成,音节由音位构成; 句子里读重音的词：
Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronouns ②tone 词汇层面
English is not a tone language
Chinese is a typical tone language:
Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fall ③intonation 句子层面
English has four basic types of intonation:
The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone 问题：
What are the two major media of communication Of the two, which one is primary and why Speech and writing Speech
Because from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in
everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic. 问题：
What is voicing and how is it caused
Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学
1 定义和知识点：
①the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure
②the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
③it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.
④it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function. ⑤four facets: Sounds phonology
Constructions syntax Meanings semantics Forms of words 2 词性分类
①open class words: 名、动、形、副 are the content words of a language ②closed class words: 连、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few new words
are added
3 词素有关
Morpheme: 词素
构成单词的最小意义单位,包括声音和意义,abstract units任意性 Morph: 形素
the sound of a morpheme 声音 Allomorphs: 语素变体
The variant forms of a morpheme 4 分类morphemes
① Free morpheme自由词素: A morpheme which can be a word by itself
② bound morpheme粘着词素：A morpheme that must be attached to another one ③ lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes派生词素,包括前后缀: They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes ④ inflectional morphemes屈折词素：词类不发生变化 5 单词定义：Word
A word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.
A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules.
A word is a lexeme词位. A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense. A word can be defined as a grammatical unit. 6 单词结构：Structure Root: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.
Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added. Base: 词基
Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don’t belong to a lexical category.
7 单词合成：Word formation
①morphological rules→productive morphological rules ②derivation
③compounds 几点注意：
When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.
When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. 不总是这样
The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. 8 单词合成过程： ①compounding
②affixation or derivation Blends 混合词
Abbreviation 缩略语
③shortening acronyms 按音节拼读首字母的单词 Initials 按字母拼读的单词 Clippings 缩写词 ④backformation 逆构词法 9 要点
Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.
They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in, and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally known as functional words.
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法
1 定义 It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2 四大派别
①traditional syntax 传统学派
②structural syntax 结构主义学派索绪尔
③transformational syntax 生成学派乔姆斯基本书重点学习 ④functional syntax 功能学派哈里德
3 范畴Categories
Noun N Verb V Major lexical categories
Adjective A Preposition P Word-level categories Determiner Det 限定词/成分 Degree words Deg 程度词 Minor lexical categories Qualifier Qual 修饰语 Auxiliary Aux 助词 Conjunction Con 连词 Syntactic categories 句法范畴的定义：
①The fact that words in all human languages can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.
②注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study. Major lexical categories 主要词汇范畴 play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.
Minor lexical categories 次要词汇范畴
Meaning 意义
Three criteria to determine a word’s category inflection 屈折变化 Distribution 分布
It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning:
①nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.
②some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.
③words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories.
Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category. ↓
The phrase is built around the word category. ↓
The word category determines the category of phrase. 4 要点
生成学派认为句子由短语构成; 短语→单词→词素→音节→
短语层面 任何短语都有2个层面 单词层面
5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories: NP: noun phrase VP: verb phrase
AP: adjective phrase PP: prepositional phrase
6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word: ①head/termed head 中心语/中心成分: The word around which a phrase is formed ②specifiers 标志语/标志成分：The words on the left side of the heads ③complements 补语/补足语/补足成分：The words on the right side of the heads 7 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则
定义：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.
The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PP NP→Det N PP … VP→Qual V NP … AP→Deg A PP … PP→Deg P NP … XP rule
公式一：XP → specifier X complement X’ Theory X 标杆理论
①X’ : The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level. ②X’ Theory: specifier X’ word
X’=X complement Coordination rule 并列规则
Coordinate structures 并列结构 Coordination 并列,并列关系
Four important properties of coordination：
①there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.
②a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated. ③coordinated categories must be of the same type.
④the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. 公式二：X→X Con X 其中“”代表无限的意思 8 Phrase elements
Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.
①semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. ②syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases. Complements are themselves phrase and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English. Subcategorization 次范畴化：中心成分决定补充成分这种现象;
中心成分决定补充成分时,决定着是否需要补充成分,需要什么样的补充成分,以及补充成分的位置问题; The XP Rule revised
公式三：XP→specifier X complement Complementizers Cs: 补语化成分
Words which introduce the sentence complement Complement clause: 补语从句
The sentence introduced by the complementizer Complement phraseCP:补语短语 Matrix clause 主句
Modifiers 修饰成分,修饰语 The Expanded XP rule:
公式四：XP→Spec Mod X Complement Mod 9 sentences
The S rule: S→NP VP 4种 短语 1种句子为屈折短语 10 transformations 转换规则
Yes-no question Syntactic movement wh-question Passive voice
Transformation/Inversion倒置定义: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another. Inversion倒置：
Move Infl to the left of the subject NP All Ss occur within larger CPs, whether they are embedded or not. Inversion revised: Move Infl to C If we assume that there can be only one element in each position in a tree structure, complementizers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusive. Trace: 用“e”表示
Head movement 中心语移位：The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another Inversion→一般疑问句+显性助词 Do insertion:
Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position 11 Two levels of syntactic structure Deep structure D-structure:
The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties Surface structure S-structure:
The structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate tansformations
★The organization of the syntactic component of the grammar The XP Rule
↓
Deep structure subcategorization restricts choice of complements
↓
Transformations
↓
Surface structure
12 Wh Movement:
Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence Wh Movement revised：
Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP 13 Move α and constraints on transformations
there is a general rule for all the movement rules. This general rule is referred to as Moveα,where “alpha” is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.
only certain categories are targeted by movement rules, and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.
①inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position. ②no element may be removed from a coordinate structure.
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
1语义学定义：
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. 2The naming theoryancient Greek scholar Plato A→B
The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. Limitations:
This theory seems applicable to nouns only.
Abstract notions can not be defined by this theory. 3The conceptualist view概念论
There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. Semantic triangle/triangle of significance Ogden and Richards 1923年提出
Thought/reference
Symbol/form ……………………………...referent 4Contextualism 语境论J. R. Firth——British linguist Malinowski Polish anthropologist Wittgenstein German philosopher
The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context: The situational context
The linguistic context/co-text
The main components of a particular spatiotemporal situation: The place The time The speaker The hearer
The actions
The various objects and events
The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.
5 Behaviorism 行为主义论American Bloomfield
This theory is linked with psychological interest. 刺激反应理论：
Jill Jack
S------------------r………..s-------------------R 6 lexical meaning Sense and reference Sense 定义: It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Dictionary compilers are interested in 每个单词都有它的意义sense Reference 定义：
It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 不是所有单词都有语义reference Major sense relations:
synonymy 同义关系synonyms
①dialectal synonyms 方言同义词British English and American English Girl------lass/lassie Scottish dialect Liquor-------whiskey Irish dialect
B A
Autumn fall
Lift elevator Luggage baggage Lorry truck Petrol gasoline Flat apartment Windscreen windshield Torch flashlight ②stylistic synonyms
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality . old man/daddy/dad/father/male parent
Start/begin/commence Kid/child/offspring
Kick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease
③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaning Collaborator / accomplice
④collocational synonyms 短语同义词 Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…for
Rotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milk ⑤semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词 Amaze/astound Drift/float
polysemy 一词多义 homonymy 同音异义
①identical in soundhomophones: Rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leek
②identical in spellinghomographs: Bow/bow tear/tear lead/lead
③identical in both sound and spellingcomplete homonyms: Fast/fast scale/scale
hyponymy 下义关系
①It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. ②superordinate 上坐标词 ③hyponyms 下义词
④co-hyponyms 共同下义词
. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morning glory
Animal: dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bear Furniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/settee antonymy 反义关系
①gradable antonyms 等级反义词
②complementary antonyms 互补反义词不能共存,非此即彼
③relational opposites 反向反义关系相反的两个极端但可共存 7 sense relations between sentences
①X is synonymous with Y.X真,Y真；X假,Y假 ②X is inconsistent with Y.X 真,Y假；X假,Y真 ③X entails Y.X真,Y一定真；X假,Y可真可假 ④X presupposes Y.X真,Y一定真；X假,Y仍为真 ⑤X is a contradiction. X永远假
⑥X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句 8 analysis of meaning
componential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析 Semantic features语义特征：
The word “man” comprises the features of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析 The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of all its constituent words.
There are two aspects to sentence meaning
Grammatical meaning: grammatical well-formedness
The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.
Semantic meaning:
Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions选择限制.constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.
注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比
Predication analysis:
proposed by the British linguist G. Leech.
Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
A predication consists of arguments变元 and predicate谓词 . TOMSMOKE
KID, APPLELIKE BE HOT SNOW Arguments变元定义： It is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence. Predicate谓词定义：
It is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
Classification of the predication according to the number of arguments contained in a predication: ①two-place predication ②one-place predication ③no-place predication
Chapter 6 Pragmatics语用学
Origin 起源：
1938, American philosopher Charles Morris Foundation of the Theory of Signs Semiotics:符号学 a science of signs
3 branches: syntax/semantics/pragmatics √Pragmatics 定义：
It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, it can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.
Two major traditions in the study of pragmatics: ①the Anglo-American tradition:
Lay much emphasis on the study of specific language phenomena ②the European continental tradition:
It does not identify pragmatics with a specific unit of analysis, but takes pragmatics to be a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspectives at the use of language.
√Pragmatics VS. Semantics
What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. Five concepts: 五个概念整理 √context: First noted by British linguist John Firth in the 1930s It is essential to the pragmatic study of language
It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker
and the hearer.
Various components of shared knowledge have been identified.
Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. Various components of shared knowledge: Knowledge of the language they use
Knowledge of what has been said before属于linguistic context Knowledge about the world in general
Knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place
Knowledge about each other √sentence meaning: 和进行比较
The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the
sentence itself in terms of predication. abstract/decontextualized sentence A sentence is a grammatical concept. √utterance meaning: Concrete/context-dependent utterance
An utterance can be grammatically a complete sentence or incomplete sentence.
注：the meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning. Speech act theory 言语行为理论
理论基础：when we are speaking, we are performing actionsdoing something It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50s of the 20th century.
It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language ” Constatives: 述事话语表述句定义
They are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. Performatives: 行事话语施为句定义
They are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
√New model: three acts American philosopher-linguist John Searle ①locutionary act言内行为
The act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology
The act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses ②illocutionary act言外行为语言学家最感兴趣
The act of expressing the speaker’s intention The act of performed in saying something ③perlocutionary act言后行为主要与听话人有关
The act performed by or resulting from saying something
It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. It is the act performed by saying something. √Searle’s classification of speech acts Specific acts that fall into the five type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.
①representatives/assertives阐述类: stating or describing, saying what the speaker
believes to be true
②directives指令类: trying to get the hearer to do something
③commissives承诺类：committing the speaker himself to some future course of
action.
④expressives表达类：expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
⑤declarations宣告类：bringing about immediate changes by saying something. √Indirect speech acts √When someone is not saying in an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather his is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.
A traditional way to explain indirect language use is by the mismatch between the basic language forms and their typical communicative functions.
We know of there exist three basic sentence forms, the declarative sentence, the imperative sentence, and the interrogative sentence.
√Searle proposed the notion of indirect speech act, which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory. Primary speech act主要言语行为
It is the speaker’s goal of communication Secondary speech act次要言语行为
It is the means by which he achieves his goal
The relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.
The recognition of the real purpose of the speaker through want he says is achieved through inferences made by the hearer based on his general knowledge and also his knowledge of some pragmatic theories and principles. √Principle of conversation会话原则=cooperative principleCP合作原则 A philosopher and logician, Paul Grice specified two kinds of implied meaning or implicature
①conventional implicature规约含义
Based on the conventional meaning of certain words in the language ②non-conventional implicature非规约含义
主要是particularized conversational implicature特定语境下的会话含义 In Grice’s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate. Grice’s original wording:
Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Four maxims
The maxim of quantity数量原则不多不少 The maxim of quality质量准则 The maxim of relation关系原则 The maxim of manner 方式准则
Three ways of violating the four maxim: The speaker wants to mislead the hearer. The speaker does not possess the adequate amount of information he is expected to provide.
The speaker simply does not want to go on with the conversation. Flouting a maxim means violating it blatantly, both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation. Cross-cultural pragmatic failure Pragmatic failure:
When the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose
When the hearer fails to recognize the intention
When the hearer fails to recognize the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.
Pragmatic failure may occur both in intra-cultural communication and in cross-cultural communication. Two dimensions of pragmatics Pragmalinguistics 语用语言学
It is applied to the more linguistic end of pragmatics/how the linguistic forms of a language are used to serve specific pragmatic purposes. Sociopragmatics 社会语用学
It is the sociological interface of pragmatics and is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose.
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