2.A bar that has constant cross section throughout its length and a strait axis一个全长等截面
的直轴
3.A uniform stretching
均匀拉伸
4.Units of force divided by area 5.A compressive stress 6.At right angles to its axis
单位面积上的力
压应力
垂直于轴杆
7.This condition will be realized if the axial force P acts through the centroid of the cross
section, as can be demonstrated y statics.
这种情况将被认为：如果一个轴向力P作
用在横截面中心，那么它可以以静力学来解释。
8.Also, unless stated otherwise, it is generally assumed that the weight of the object itself is
neglected, as was done when discussing the bar in Fig. 1-1 . 同样，除非另有说明，这个通常假设该物体的重力被忽略，对于在像图Ι-Ι讨论杆件的时候。
9.By making an artificial cut through the bar at right angles to its axis, we can isolate parts of
the bar as a free body. 人工的截开这个杆在垂直于轴向的方向上，我们能隔离出杆的一部分为自由端。
10.The concepts of stress and strain can be illustrated in an elementary way by considering the
extension of prismatic bar. 应力和应变能够用一种基本的方式来解释，考虑该柱形延伸的杆件。
that its resultant is equal to the intensity ａ times the cross-section area A of the bar. 假设在整个横截面上有着均匀分布的应力，我们能理解到它的结果等于强度6与横截面面积A的乘积。
12.When the bar is being stretched by the force P, as shown in the figure, the resulting stress is
a tensile stress; if the forces are reversed in direction, causing the bar to be compressed, they are called compressive stresses. 当一个杆件被力P拉伸，我们可以看到在途中，这个结果应力为拉力，如果这个里方向相反，将造成这个敢见被压缩，这叫压应力。13.The critical load 临界荷载
11.Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the cross section ,we can readily see
14.The ultimate load 最终荷载15.a modulus of elasticity 弹性模量16.a factor of safety 安全因素17.elastic buckling 弹性弯曲18.initial crookedness 故有弯曲19.the slenderness ratio 长细比
20.A diagram of the compressive stress in the column versus the slenderness ratio can now be
plotted. 一个图表关于有压力的柱体长细比能马上被绘制。
21.For practical purpose it is sometimes sufficient to draw a straight line EB and to consider that
it represents the critical stresses for medium-length columns. 对实际的目的而言，这个有时候足以用画一条直线EB来考虑和代表临界应力关于中等柱体。
22.At this stress the column fails either by a direct failure of the material or by bucking,
depending upon the slenderness ratio. 对于这种应力的柱体被破坏不是直接压坏就是被压弯，这取决于这根柱的长细比。
23.This condition cannot be improved by using a higher strength material; instead, the critical
stress can be raised by increasing the radius of gyration or by using a material with a higher modulus of elasticity. 这种情况下不能被提高：用一更高的强度的材料，但是用一更高回转半径的材料或者有更高弹性模量的材料能提高临界应力。
24.The Euler formula for the critical load is inapplicable in some instances and gives values
which are too high. 欧拉公式的临界荷载有些情况不能应用，这回导致结果值太高。25.dead loads 静荷载26.live loads 动荷载27.the mean load 平均荷载
28.rational safety provisions 合理安全措施29.random variable 随机变量
30.Safety requires that the strength of the structure be adequate for all loads which may
foreseeably act on it. 安全要求结构的强度对于预见的作用在这个上面的全部荷载是充分的。
31.Serviceability requires that deflections be adequately small, that cracks, if any, be kept to
tolerable limits, that vibrations be minimized. 适用性要求充分小的挠度，可以保持在允许范围内的裂缝和尽量小的震动。
32.Actual loads may differ from those assumed in the design. 真实的荷载或许与假设中的设
计不相同。
33.Actual loads may be distributed in a manner different from that assumed in the desigh. 真
实的荷载分布情况或许与假设中涉及不相同
34.Dead loads are those which are consistent in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the
lifetime of the structure. 静荷载是一直在大小和位置都不变的作用在结构上。
35.flat roof 平屋顶36.pitched roof 人字形屋顶
37.upwind part of the roof 屋顶的逆风面38.canopy roof 天蓬屋顶
39.windward part of the roof 屋顶的上风面
40.wind parallel with building facade 平行于建筑物正面的风41.wind perpendicular to building facade 垂直于建筑物正面的风
42.When the undisturbed air flow approaches a building, it is forced around and over the
building. 当没有干扰的气流接近一个建筑，它的力量是覆盖在建筑物的周围和上方。43.Pressure is marked by plus and suction is marked by minus in the following figures. 压力
在下边的图表中为“+”，引力为“—”。
44.For pitched roofs with a slope of between 15 and 30, suction as well as pressure may occur
on the upwind part of the roof. 对于坡度在15 到30 的人字坡而言，吸力和压力一样或许作用在逆风屋顶。
45.If this aspect was incorporated into the building traditions of areas prone to severe
hurricanes, the number of low-rise structural failures in these areas could be reduced in the future. 如这个方面综合考虑系统倾向于严重的飓风区域内不高的结构承载力破坏的数量在这些区域在未来将减少。46.member performance 构件工作性能47.rational safety provisions 合理安全储备48.concrete cover distance 保护层厚度
49.random variable 随机变量50.deep flexural members 深梁
51.Tension cracks in beams may be wide enough to be visually disturbing, and in some cases
may reduce the durability of the structure. 梁中拉应力产生的裂缝足够宽看起来是烦人的，在某些情况下或许会降低结构的耐久性。
52.All reinforced concrete beams crack, generally starting at loads well below service level, and
possibly even prior to loading due to restrained shrinkage. 所有的钢筋混凝土梁的裂缝，
通常开始于荷载低于服务水平，而且可能甚至在荷载作用前限制收缩。
53.In early reinforced concrete designs, questions of serviceability were dealt with indirectly ,by
limiting the stresses in concrete and steel at service loads to the rather conservative values that had resulted in satisfactory performance. 所有的钢筋混凝土设计中，适用性方面的问题是被间接处理的，通过限制混凝土的应力和承受荷载的钢筋在保守之范围内来导致完美的工作性能。
54.In the discussion of the importance of a good bond between steel and concrete it was
pointed out that if proper end anchorage is provided ,a beam will not fail prematurely ,even though the bond is destroyed along the entire span . 在讨论一个好的连接在钢筋和混凝土间的重要性，这是被指出的：如果正确的尾端锚固存在，一个梁不会被提早破坏，即使连接在整跨上被破坏了，亦如此。
55.Experiments by Bromes and others have shown that both crack spacing and crack width are
related to the concrete cover distance dc, measured from the center of the bar to the face of the concrete . Bromes和其他人的实验表明，裂缝间距和裂缝宽度与保护层厚度有关，这个厚度是杆中心到混凝土表面的距离。56.Earthquake-resistant structures 57.Post-and-resisting elements
抗震结构
立柱和梁的组合体
抵抗侧应力的构件
58.Lateral-load-resisting elements 59.Rigid diaphragms
刚性隔板
60.Structures with redundancy 超静定结构61.Timber structures 木结构
62.The primary reason for this is that earthquake resistance of a structure is dependent, to a
large extent ,on its ability to absorb the energy input associated with ground motions 。 最基本的原因是一个结构的抗震很大程度上取决于相互依赖，他们吸收相关地震力的
能量的能力 。
63.The failure of relatively few members in the outer plane of the structure shown in Fig.6-2b
may lead to total collapse, whereas many more members must fail in the more redundant structure for it to collapse. 很少构件的破坏在结构的表面像图6-2b，将导致全部倒塌，然而在有很多约束的结构中，必须有更多的构件被破坏才会倒塌。
64.Earthquake-resistant structures also typically have floor and roof planes designed as rigid
diaphragms capable of transmitting internal forces to lateral-load-resisting elements through beam-like action. 抗震结构也典型的有横面和屋顶被设计成刚性隔板，以此能够传递内在力到抵抗侧向力的结构上，像梁一样的效果。
65.Precast concrete structures, however, can be difficult to design for safety in earthquake
zones because of the problems involved in achieving a continuous ductile structure. 预知的混凝土结构，然而难以设计在安全性上在地震多发地区，因为这些问题要涉及到连续和延伸性的结构。
66.Reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土 67.Rolled-steel 轧制刚材68.Weldability 可焊性69.Aggregate 骨料 70.Mortar 砂浆71.Deformation 变形
72.The modern civil engineer needs to deal with a variety pf materials that are often integrated
in the same structure, such as steel and concrete, or are used separately for construction projects, such as pavements from asphalt and Portland cement concrete . 现今的土木工或者单独做用于项目建设，就像用沥青和硅酸水泥铺路。
73.The useful engineering properties of both unalloyed and alloyed aluminum are low specific
gravity resistance to corrosion, high electrical conductivity and excellent forming properties . 有用的工程行者对于非合金和铝合金是低质量的，可耐腐蚀的，导电性好的，良好的可塑性。
74.Concrete is a man-made composite the major constituent of which in natural aggregate
(such as gravel and sand ) and binding medium (such as cement paste, bitumen and polymers) . 混凝土是人造混合物，它的主要成分是基本骨料(如砾石)和胶凝材料(如书你讲，沥青和聚合物) .
程需要处理多种多样的材料，这些经常被整合到同一个结构中，就像钢材和混凝土，
75.Reinforcing techniques have been developed in recent years to extend the structural
possibilities of masonry ,especially improved its resistance to earthquakes . 加强技术在近几年发展迅速，涉及扩展了浆砌体结构的使用可能性，尤其是提高了抗震性。
第一课
等截面Constant cross section，单位面积上的力Unit area on the force杆件的横截面面积A cross-sectional area of the member横截面的形心Centroid of the cross section单位长伸长量Elongation per unit length相邻横截面Adjacent cross-section除非另有说明Unless otherwise noted
力的集度。即是单位面积上的力，称为应力The force set degrees, that is the force per unit area, known as stress
应力常用希腊字母@来表示Stress commonly used Greek letters @
单位长度的伸长量称为应变，常来以下公式确定Unit length of elongation is called strain, often to the following formula to determine
材料力学是应用力学的一个分支The materials mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics
材料力学讨论固体在承受各种荷载时的性能Of Material Mechanics Discussion solid performance under various loads
临界应力Critical stress欧拉公式Euler's formula 比例极限Proportional limit强度极限Strength limit非弹性屈曲Inelastic buckling平均压应力Average compressive stress回转半径Radius of gyration许可应力Allowable stress
我们注意到临界应力的变化和柱子长细比的平方成反比We note that the critical stress changes and pillars slenderness ratio is inversely proportional to the square of如果，柱子将由于弹性屈曲而失效，欧拉公式可以应用If, failure.Euler's formula，
曲线ABC是根据公式2-1绘制的，被称为欧拉曲线
Curve ABC is according to the formula 2-
第二课
pillars elastic buckling
1 draw, is called the euler's curve
结构工程安全系数的典型值介于1.5和3这一范围内。The structural engineering typical value of the safety factor of between 1.5 and 3 within this range
第三课
温度差Temperature difference
补救措施Remedial measures
补安全度规范Complement safety norms，雨水积聚 Rainwater accumulation概率密度函数Probability density function概率曲线 Probability curve
失效概率Probability of failure分项安全系数Partial safety factors
结构必须具备抗破坏的安全度和实用时的实用性The structure must have anti undermine the security and practical usefulness
作用在结构上的荷载可分为三大类。Effect on the structure of the load can be divided into three
categories.
像活荷载一样，某时刻的环境荷载无论大小还是分布都是不确定的Like live load, a time of environmental load regardless of size or distribution is uncertain
规定值并不是平均值，而是表示期望的上限Specified value is not mean, but expects the upper limit
设计规范中合理的安全条款已经取得了很大进展。code of reasonable safety terms have been
made great progress.
由此可看出，这个规定的使用荷载比作用在结构上的平均荷载大得多。This can be seen, the
provisions of the use of load ratio effect on the structure of the average load much larger
第四课
风吸力Wind suction风压力Wind pressure四坡屋顶Hipped roof建筑正立面Building façade
斜度在30的坡屋顶Gradient in 30 slope roof低层建筑Low-rise building
风压力和吸力分别指的是空气的压力大于或者小于大气压力Wind pressure and suction
means is the pressure of the air is greater than or less than atmospheric pressure当屋顶的坡度大于约30°时，在屋顶的迎风面为压力，在屋顶的背风面为吸力When the roof slope is greater than about 30 °, the windward side of the roof of the pressure in the leeward side of the roof to the suction
雨棚下部受垂直升力的作用，该荷载与上部风荷载同时作用其上The canopy lower
vertical lift, the load and the upper part of the wind loads acting simultaneously on.
第五章
结构的实用性Practicality of the structure结构的耐久性The durability of the structure裂缝宽度Crack width长期挠度Long-term deflection使用荷载 Use load
在设计良好的钢筋混凝土梁中，裂缝须足够小，以防出现超过规范允许宽度的钢筋锈蚀Well-designed reinforced concrete beams, the cracks to be small enough to avoid a more than steel corrosion specification allows the width
为了控制裂缝，最好使用小直径而数量多的钢筋，而不是大直径而数量少的钢筋In order to control the crack, the best use of small diameter and number of reinforced, rather than the large diameter of the small number of reinforced.
一般，配置光圆钢筋的梁，其裂缝会表现的少宽，而配置适变形钢筋的梁，其裂缝数量多而宽度细微到几乎不可见。General configuration plain bars, beam, the crack will show less wide, and configure the appropriate deformed bars, beam, the number of crack width
subtle almost invisible.
对深受弯构件，除受弯主钢筋外，需要在腹部两侧配置附加钢筋以防其表面裂缝宽度超限Deep flexural members, in addition to the main reinforcement of the bend by both sides of the abdomen configure additional reinforcement to prevent the surface crack width gauge
第六章
预制混凝土结构Precast concrete structure地震受灾区Quake-hit areas
能量的吸收 Energy absorption
现浇结构Cast-in-place structure
水平抗侧力构件Level of lateral force resisting members塑性铰Plastic hinge延性结构Ductility structur
在经受地震的时候，连续结构往往表现良好When continuous structures tend to perform well
subjected to the earthquake,
结构抵抗地震的能力很大程度上取决于他吸收能量的能力The structure's ability to
withstand an earthquake depends largely on his ability to absorb energy
预制混凝土结构，由于其节点缺乏连续性，不适用于地震区Precast concrete structure,
due to the lack of continuity of its nodes, and does not apply to the earthquake zone作为其特色，抗震结构往往拥有楼板或者屋面作为刚性隔板，以将内心传递到水平抗侧力构件上Seismic structure often has as its characteristics, the floor or roof as a rigid diaphragm, to pass the heart to the level of the lateral force resisting members on
第七章
冲击荷载Impact load
软钢，低碳钢Mild steel, low carbon steel
冷拉Cold Drawn粘土砖Clay brick收缩Shrink
钢结构的设计主要基于钢材的强度，但是钢材的延性，韧性及及可焊性也是重要的特性。The steel structure design is mainly based on the strength of steel, but the steel ductility, toughness and weldability is also an important characteristic.
钢材的可焊性非常重要。因为与栓链接和铆接结构相比，焊接结构节省重量并且易于装配The weldability of the steel is very important.As compared with the the bolt link and
riveting structure welded structure to save weight and easy to assemble
普通混凝土的抗拉强度比较低，在结构应用中常规的作法或者是在混凝土放入钢筋一起抵抗拉力（钢筋混凝土），或者是用混凝土中的压力来抵消拉力（预应力混凝土或者后应力混凝土）。Relatively low tensile strength of ordinary concrete in structural applications in routine practice or placed in the concrete reinforced with resistance Rally (reinforced concrete) or concrete pressure to counteract the stress after Rally (prestressed concrete or concrete). 建造过程中最大的不同是一般不需要等量的临时模板和支撑，而是在混凝土结构中需要这两者The biggest difference in the construction process generally does not require the same amount of temporary formwork and support, but both need concrete structures
砂浆的收缩与热膨胀裂缝是砌体结构的两个主要问题。Shrinkage and thermal expansion of the mortar cracks in masonry structure of the two main issues
第八章.力矩Torque
均匀荷载Uniform load等价体系Equivalent system连系梁Link beam
二次超静定Secondary statically indeterminate放松结构Relaxed structure滚轴支座Roller bearing
这些位移可能是由于外加荷载，基础沉降或者温度变化引起的These displacements may
be caused due to the applied load, foundation settlement or temperature changes因此，我们找到作用于最初的超静定结构上的力：他们是赘余力和作用在基本结构上的力的和。Therefore, we find the effect to the original statically indeterminate structure force: they are summation of proud force and effect in the basic structure of the force 。
最终位移是基本结构上附加荷载和外加荷载的效应叠加产生的Final displacement on the basic structure of the superposition of the effect of the additional load imposed loads
第九章
弯矩-曲率关系Moment - curvature relationship
应变计长度范围内测得的平均应变The length of the strain gauge measured over the average strain
应变硬化Strain hardening
极限压应Ultimate compressive strain抗弯承载力Flexural capacity
梁的有效高度The effective height of the beam弯矩图Bending moment diagram界限配筋率Reinforcement Ratio
在最大弯矩等于塑性弯矩时，其曲率变得非常大，并且出现塑性流动Its plastic moment
curvature
becomes very large, and the plastic flow in the maximum bending moment is equal to the
always appear on the largest cross-section of the bending moment, and its presence indicates that the member rotation along the hinge section
塑性铰的形成将使构件成为破坏结构The formation of the plastic hinge will allow components become damaged structure
铰中塑性区的长度可以较容易地计算出来Hinged plastic zone length can be easily calculated
塑性铰总是在弯矩最大的截面上出现，其出现意味着构件将沿铰截面转动Plastic hinge
第十章
中性轴Neutral axis质心Centroid名义上Nominally
抵抗力矩Resistance to torque
最小配筋百分率Minimum reinforcement percentage最大配筋百分率 The largest percentage of reinforcement
在得到梁的表达形式之前，必须要根据两种受拉钢筋的配置数量对梁的类型进行分类。Form of expression of the beam before it must be based on the number of configurations of the two tension reinforcement beam type classification
对于一个适筋梁，当达到极限荷载时，梁的钢筋将开始屈服，虽然受压混凝土仍然没达到极限应力状态。When reached ultimate load for a suitable reinforcement beam, the beam reinforced will begin to yield, although the pressure on the concrete still did not reach the limit stress state.
有时，由于建筑和功能的要求，所选梁的尺寸比仅仅考虑弯曲更大。 Sometimes, due to the construction and function requirements, choose the size of the beam than just consider bending more.
在应变达到某个值时，钢筋混凝土梁受拉边的混凝土出现开裂In the strain to a certain value, the reinforced concrete beam tension side of the concrete crack appeared
当受拉边配筋多时，受压边的破坏将以混凝土压烂为特征When features
the tension side
reinforcement for long time, pressure side of the damage will be concrete pressure rotten
第二十章
加州承载力California bearing capacity液限Liquid limit，筛分法Sieving
固结沉降Consolidation Settlement塑性指数Plasticity index
土的物理性质由土颗粒的性质，当前的空隙体积所占土体积的比例和土体内现有的水量来决定The physical properties of soil by the nature of the soil particles, the void volume of this proportion of the soil volume attributable soil vivo existing water to determine瞬间沉降是组颗粒的特性，比如沙土和砂石，而固结沉降是那些由细小的单颗粒组成的土的特征，如黏土和粉性土。Instant settlement group characteristics of the particles, such characteristics, such as clay and silty soil.
as sand and gravel, and the consolidation settlement is small particles of soil
自然状态的黏土颗粒是薄片状的，结构内部连接紧密，但彼此之间的连接很弱。The natural state of clay particles flakes, the structure of the internal connections are tight, but the connection between weak.
塑限是粘性土的特性，其定义为土体从固体变化到塑状态的界限含水量。通过塑限试验确定试验确定The plastic limit the cohesive soil characteristics, which is defined as the soil water content changes from a solid to a plastic state boundaries.To determine experimentally determined through the plastic limit test
液限总是大于塑限，两者的差值反映土体的强度随含水量的变化Liquid limit is always greater than the plastic limit, the difference between the two reflects the strength of the soil with water content changes。
第二十一章
地质历史Geological history沉井Open caisson
扩展基础Spread Foundation筏板基础Raft foundation
地基加固 Foundation reinforcement
必须在某种意义上将上部结构的荷载扩散到地基土体中，这样才会使土体中的应力不超过土体的极限强度Must sense the load of the upper structure of the diffusion into the foundation soil, this will make the stress in the soil not exceed the soil the ultimate
strength of
所有建造在地球上的工程结构物，都必须支撑在一种基础的结构构件上。All construction engineering structures on the earth, must be supported on a base of the structural member.
制定野外勘察计划并根据最初阶段发现的情况提出必须补充的现场试验以及室内试验计划Formulation of field investigation and according to the initial stages of plan found situation must be added to the field test and laboratory test plan Deep and spread foundation, which is different to the vertical direction instead of to the horizontal diffusion load. 深基础与扩展基础相似，所不同的是向竖直方向而不是向水平方向扩散荷载。Deep foundation not to spread the load.
and extension basic similar, which is different to the vertical direction and horizontal direction
根据试验数据，科学原理和工程判断的综合，确定必须的土体设计参数According to the test data, a comprehensive scientific principles and engineering judgment to determine the design parameters of the soil must
第二十二章桥墩Bridge pier端承桩End bearing pile容许应力Allowable stress振幅Amplitude
surface load transfer to the soil deeper position in the soil, concrete or steel structure members
通过桩体排土和打入振动的共同作用压缩松软，无黏土性沉积层，这种桩以后可以拨出Compression soft, no clay sediments, can be allocated later this pile together through the soil and into the vibration of pile row
在近海岸的结构物中，可将水面以上的荷载穿过水传递到下卧土层中Structures near the coast, you can load above the water through the water delivered to the under ground柱基础比扩展基础的成本高很多，且可能比筏板基础昂贵Column foundation than the
桩是用来将表面荷载传递到土体中较深位置的土，混凝土或钢结构构件The pile is for
of both to determine a proper design and pile.
expansion of the basis of the cost is much higher than expensive raft foundation
Field use dynamic pile formula, the bearing capacity of pile foundation test or a combination
现场使用动力打桩公式，桩基承载力试验或者两者的结合来确定设计和桩位是否恰当。
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