Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics? 什么是语言学 [A] The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究) Process of linguistic study: ① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; ② Hypotheses are formulated; ③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations; ④ A linguistic theory is constructed. [B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics [C] Some important distinctions in linguistics ① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 ② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性） The description of a language at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. ③ Speech and writing 言语与文字 Spoken language is primary, not the written ④ Langue and parole 语言和言语 Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological) Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统） Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use（指语言在实际运用中的实现） ⑤ Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用 Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological) Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识） Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现） What is language? 什么是语言 [A] The definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。) a) System: combined together according to rules （根据规则组合在一起） b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系） c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音） d) Human: language is human-specific （语言是人类所独有的） [B]Design features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication （识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征） ①Arbitrariness（任意性） There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意） a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words （拟声词） b) some compound words （某些复合词） ②Productivity（能产性，创造性） Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness) ★③Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性） Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性） ④Displacement（跨时空性，移位性） Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations) ⑤Cultural transition（文化传递性） While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt. The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language. Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学 [A] The definition of phonetics（语音学） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学） Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（听觉语音学） Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.（声学语音学） [B] Organs of speech （发音器官） Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced (Voicing): 浊音when the vocal cords声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. All the English vowels元音are typically voiced (voicing). The important cavities: The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 The oral cavity 口腔 The nasal cavity 鼻腔 其他部位：Lips唇1, teeth齿2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)软腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords声带10 [C] Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad and narrow transcriptions （语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音） IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标) Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only （代表字母的符号） Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics （变音符） E.g.: [l][li:f]-- a clear [l] (no diacritic) [l][bild]--a dark [l] (~) [l][help]--a dental [l] ( ) 表示送气[p][pit]--an aspirated [ph](h) [p][spit]--an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic) [n][5bQtn]a syllabic nasal [n] (7) [D] Classification of English consonants（英语辅音的分类） In terms of manner of articulation 根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created) ①Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly [p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g] ②Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month [f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant) ③Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз] ④Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]a lateral sound; [r] retroflex ⑤Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels) Liquid + glides + [h] approximants ⑥Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m], [n], [η] By place of articulation根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created) ①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w](velar) ②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v] ③dental齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ] ④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r] ⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j] ⑥velars软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η] ⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h] [E] Classification of English vowels （英语元音的分类） ① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; ② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; ③ The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips): All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [B] All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels ④ The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels Larynx (tense) or (lax) Monophthongs, diphthongs Cardinal vowels [F] The definition of phonology（音位学） Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. [G] Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. （音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体） [H] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体） Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast. E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/ （要会判断！） Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning. Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets. [I] Some rules in phonology ① sequential rules 序列规则 Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset: 如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则： No1: ___/s/ 第一个音位一定是/s/ ___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二个音位一定是/p/, /t/, /k/ ___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三个音位一定是/r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ No2: The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ] are not to be followed by another sibilants. ② assimilation rules 同化规则 Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation. Assimilation & elision effects 元音省略 Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.鼻音化现象 ③ deletion rule/Elision 省略规则 Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音 [J] Suprasegmental features （超音段特征） ① Stress重音 Word stress & sentence stress The stress of the English compounds always on the first element ② Tone声调 Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.像音素一样可以区别意义 Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones. 汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调 Level, rise, fall-rise, fall 阴平 阳平 上声 去声 ③ Intonation 语调 When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones 四种语调 The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降调 声调 将声调 升降调 Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学 [A] The definition of morphology Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究） Morpheme:词素 the most basic element of meaning.（意义的最基本要素） (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function最小的意义单位或者语法功能) [B] Free morphemes & bound morphemes（自由词素和黏着词素） Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.] Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form Derivational morphemes派生词素affix词缀 (suffix, infix, prefix) + root 后缀 中缀 前缀+词根 Inflectional morphemes 曲折词素 8 types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+ -’s, -s [possessive所有格; plural复数] Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular第三人称单数; present participle现在分词; past tense过去式, past participle过去分词] Adj + -er, -est [comparative比较级; superlative最高级] [C] Derivational vs. Inflectional 派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志） Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word 只表示语法标志（时态、数、格） Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category词的范畴; Derivational morphemes are opposite Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折 [D] Morphological Rules 形态学规则（词的构成方式词素是怎样组合成为词） N. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; guard overgeneralization [E] Morphs and allomorphs 语素和语素变体 Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes shapes or phonetic forms. e.g. map----maps [s] dog----dogs [z] watch----watches [iz] mouse----mice [ai] ox----oxen [n] tooth----teeth sheep----sheep Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. [F] Word-formation process（构词法） ① Coinagethe invention of totally new terms （创造全新的词） ② Borrowingthe taking over of words form other languages ③ Compounding a joining of two separate words to produce a single form （组成复合词） ④ Blending taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word ⑤ Clipping a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form ⑥ Back formation a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word ⑦ Conversion category change, functional shift Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate ⑧ Acronyms new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words ⑨ Derivation the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words（添加词缀） ⑩ Abbreviation a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form （缩短原词） Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学 [A] The definition of syntax Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern the formation of sentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） [C] Types of sentences Simple sentence简单句: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. Coordinate (Compound) sentence并列（复合）句: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”… Complex sentence复杂句: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other Embedded clause子句 matrix clause主句 ① subordinator ②functions as a grammatical unit ③ may be complete [B]Some categories（范畴） Syntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate句法范畴 Lexical categories: (parts of speech)词汇范畴 Major lexical categories (open categories): N. V. Adj. Adv. Minor lexical categories (closed categories): Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int. Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP短语范畴 [C]Combinational rules Are small in number Yield all the possible sentences Rule out the impossible ones ① phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)（短语结构规则） S NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) NP (det.限定词) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)… “”：包括/分为 VP (qual.修饰词)V (NP) (POP) (S)… “( )”：内部的成分可以省略 AP (deg.程度词)A (PP) (S)… “…”：可以选择附加其他补语 PP (deg.)P NP… ②X- bar theory Head an obligatory word that givers the phrase its name XP or X-phrase XP (Specifier) X (complement) Formula: X” Spec X’ X-bar theory (X-bar schema) X’ X compl [D]Transformational rules 转换规则 D-structure and S-structure 深层结构和表层结构 Deep structure: the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable. Surface structure: linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication. Two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure: One that exists before movement takes place The other that occurs after movement takes place Formal linguistic exploration: D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexicon Sentence at the level of D-structure The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from D-structure level to S-structure level Transformational-generative line of analysis [E]Syntactic Relations Sequential(syntagmatic) relations 组合关系 The linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence Substitutional(paradigmatic) relations (聚合关系) If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentence and the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic relations. [F] Immediate Constituent Analysis （IC Analysis） IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are. The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemes Labeled IC analysis syntactic categories criteria in judging syntactic categories: 1) morphological features(inflectional and derivational affixes they take) (number,case gender etc.) 2) syntactic contexts in which the linguistic forms can occur Category the determiner (Det.) boy noun (n.) often qualifier plays verb (v.) a Det. very degree word (Deg) small modifier ball n. must, should… auxiliary (Aux.) and, but, or… conjunction (Con.) [G] The hierarchical structure of sentence A sentence can be analyzed into constituents. Conversely, constituents at different levels can combine to form increasingly larger units. Sentences sentences are analyzed into clauses are analyzed into phrases are analyzed into are used to build clauses are used to build phrases are used to build words are analyzed into morphemes sentences words are used to build morphemes So traditionally, sentences are assumed to be made of individual words in a linear direction Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学 [A] The definition of semantics Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义的研究） [B] Some views concerning the study of meaning 关于意义研究的一些观点 ① the naming theory命名论 ② the conceptualist view概念论 Thought/reference concept 思想/指称 Symbol/Form (words) 符号/形式 Referent (real object)所指 ③ contextualism: John Firth 语境论 ④ behaviorism Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: response Jill Jack S---------r………s---------R (the small letters r, sspeech)(the capitalized letter R, Spractical events) [C] Sense and reference （意义和指称） （主要涉Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.及语言形式的固有意义，是抽象，不与语境相关的） Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience（指语言形式在现实物质世界中的事物，是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系） Moving star I once was bitten by a dog. Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there. [D] Major sense relations（主要的意义关系） ① synonymy同义现象 the sameness or close similarity of meaning a. dialectal synonyms方言同义词——synonyms used in different regional dialects（美式/英式英语） b. stylistic synonyms文体同义词——synonyms differing in style （问题、正式度不同） c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感或评价意义不同的同义词（褒贬义） d. collocational synonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法） e. semantically different synonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同） ② polysemy多义现象——one word that has more than one related meaning ③ homonymy 同音异义 Homophones: when two words are identical in sound同音异义 发音一样 Homographs: when two words are identical in spelling同形异义 拼写一样 Complete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and in Sound完全同音异义词 ④ hyponymy下义关系—— inclusiveness 包含关系 The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.上坐标词 The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym. Co-hyponym下坐标词 ⑤ antonymy反义词——oppositeness Gradable antonyms 等级反义词（有中间词，程度不同） Complementary antonyms互补反义词（两个极端dead/alive，male/female） Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items（关系反义词） [E] Sense relations between sentences句子之间的意义关系 ① X is synonymous with Y （X与Y同义）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假 ② X is inconsistent with Y （X与Y不一致）如果X真，Y假；X假，Y真 ③ X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) （X蕴含Y(Y是X的一个含义)） 如果X真，Y一定真 （去过法国一定去过欧洲） 如果X假，Y有可能真（没去过法国去/没去过欧洲欧洲） ④ X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) （X预设Y(Y是X的先决条件)） 如果X真，Y一定真 如果X假，Y仍然真 ⑤ X is a contradiction X自我矛盾（总是假） ⑥ X is semantically anomalous X语义反常 [F] Componential analysisa way to analyze lexical meaning （成分分析法分析词汇意义的方法） Semantic features语义特征: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic features Phoneme distinctive features区别特征 Show how those words are related in meaning [G] Predication analysisa way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech （述谓结构分析法分析句子意义的方法） ① the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components) ② Grammatical meaning and semantic meaning 包括语法意义和语义意义 Grammaticality 语法规范性 selectional restrictions选择限制规则 Semantic analysis: Predication (basic unit)述谓结构 the abstract meaning of the sentence句子的抽象意义 Argument(s) 变元（名词成分） predicate谓词（谓语） Logical participant(s) Sth said about an argument or states the logical relation linking the argument(s) in a sentence The predicate can be regarded as the main element. Tom smokes. TOM (SMOKE) one-place predication Kids like apples. KID, APPLE (LIKE) two-place predication It’s raining. (BE RAIN) no-place predication Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 [A] The definition of pragmatics Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication（是研究某一语言的使用者如何使用句子而达到成功交际） What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.（在意义的研究中是否考虑到了语境的音素） If it is not, it is semantics. If it is, it is pragmatics. [B] Context 语境/上下文 （由说It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.话人和听话人共有的知识构成） [C]Sentence meaning and utterance meaning ★句子意义和话语意义 e.g. The dog is barking. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a sentence.如果把它当做一个语法单元，认为它是一个独立于语境之外的单元，那就当做句子 If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.如果把它当做是说话人在特定场景带着特定目的所说的话，那就当做话语 Meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized.句子的意义是抽象的，脱离语境的 Meaning of an utterance is concrete, and contextualized.话语的意义是具体的，依赖语境的 Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.话语的意义基于句子的意义之上，它是句子的抽象意义在交际的真实场景中的体现 [D] Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论） Direct speech act Indirect speech act Face-threatening Face-saving Proposed by British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s Answer: what do we do when using language? Constatives叙事话语: statements that either state or describe, and thus verifiable陈述→可证实 Performatives行事话语: sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable (perform certain acts) 无法证实 Gave the distinction between constatives and performatives and gave rise to a new model: [A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking] 说话人在说话时可能同时执行三个动作 ① locutionary act:（言内行为）the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 通过句法、词汇、音位学传递字面意义 ② illocutionary act:（言外行为）the act of expressing the speaker’s intention It is the act preformed in saying something.通过一个话语，表达说话的意图 ③ perlocutionary act:（言后行为）the act performed by or resulting from saying something It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.话语的效果 Linguists are more concerned about or interested in illocutionary act.语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣 The classification of illocutionary act made by American philosopher-linguist John Searle Five general categories: ① representatives:（阐述类）stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true 陈述或描述，说出说话人认为正确的东西（陈述、信任、发誓、假设） ② directives:（指令类）trying to get the hearer to do something 试图让听话人做某事（邀请、建议、请求、忠告、警告、威胁、命令） ③ commissives:（承诺类）committing the speaker himself to some future course of action 说话人对未来的某个行为作出承诺（许诺、保证、发誓） ④ expressives:（表达类）expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state 表达对存在的状态的感情或者态度（道歉、感谢、祝贺） ⑤ declaratives:（宣告类）bringing about immediate changes by saying something 通过说出某事带来的立即的变化 All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or force.属于同一类的所有行为具有相同的目的，但是它们在强度或力度上却存在差异 All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their syntactic form.所有表达同一种行为的话语在句法形式上有所不同 [E] Principles of conversation (Co-operative principles) 会话原则或合作原则（CP原则） Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher The maxim of quantity: 数量准则（提供足量的信息，不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息） The maxim of quality: 质量准则（不说假话，不说缺乏足够证据的话） The maxim of relation: 关系准则（有相关性） The maxim of manner: 方式准则（避免表达艰涩，避免歧义，简洁，避免冗繁，有条理） Significance重要性: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said. 它解释了说话人是如何表达字面意义之外的信息 名词解释： Linguistic Language Phonology Phone Phoneme Allophone Morpheme Derivational morpheme Inflectional morpheme Syntax Semantics Sense and Reference