Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;
it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
例子：1.If we say \"The dog is barking\certain dog existent in the situation; the word \"dog\" refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer.This is the reference of the word \"dog\" in this particular situation.
2. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. eg: “beauty”
On the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. eg: morning star & evening star、 Semantic field
Semantic field refers to organization of related lexemes into a system which shows their relationship to one another.
If a lexeme is related with a number of other lexemes in that they all belong to a particular activity or area of specialist knowledge, then we may say they belong to the same semantic field.
eg. cup, mug, wine glass, plastic cup (vessels from which one drinks) sense relations
1.Sense relations between words(注意看例子) Synonymy同义 Antonymy反义 Hyponymy上下义 Polysemy多义 Homonymy同音异义 Meronymy
2.Sense relations between sentences
例子：Polysemy：We eat what we can and we can what we cannot eat. I saw a saw hanging on the wall.
Homonymy（看例子）
words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. Homophones:
two words are identical in sound rain/reign; night/knight Homographs:
two words are identical in spelling bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n. Complete homonyms:
two words are identical in both sound and spelling fast adj./fast v. scale n./scale v. Meronymy（作补充拔高知识）
a part-whole relationship between lexical items. reflects hierarchical classification in the lexicon.
One of the best examples is the human body with its various parts, their subparts, and so on.
Both Hyponymy and Meronymy concerns the idea of a hierarchy. But they are different in the aspect of:
Meronymy can be expressed by the pattern “X is a part of Y” or “Y has X”;
Hyponymy can be expressed by the pattern “X is a kind of Y”. Sense relations between sentences
There are six sense relations between sentences and also between constituents of the same sentence.
The following are major discussions of them in terms of truth condition. X, Y stand for SENTENCE X is a contradiction X is semantically anomalous
X is synonymous with Y. X与Y同义 X is inconsistent with Y. X与Y不一致 X entails Y(Y is an entailment of X) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) 1. X is a contradiction.
When X is a contradiction, it is invariably false. Her husband is a lonely bachelor. 2. X is semantically anomalous
When X is semantically anomalous, it is absurd in the sense that it presuppose a contradiction. The table has bad intentions. 3. X is synonymous with Y
In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false.
4. X is inconsistent with Y
In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.
X = He is married. Y= He is a bachelor. 5. X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.)
In terms of truth condition: if X is true, Y is necessarily true; If X is false, Y may be true or false.
a. John killed Bill. b. Bill died.
6. X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X.)
In terms of truth condition, If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.
a. Mary’s dog is barking. b. Mary has a dog. Analysis of meaning
1.Componential analysis成分分析
2.Predication analysis述谓结构分析proposed by G. Leech（补充拔高）
a way to analyze sentence meaning
The basic unit of the analysis is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
A predication contains of argument(s) and predicate(s).
An argument is a logical participant in a prediction, largely identical
with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.
A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. The predication of the sentence
“Tom smokes” TOM (SMOKE); “Kids like apples” KID, APPLE (LIKE); “It is hot” (BE HOT)
According to the number of the arguments contained in a predication, the predications can be classified into :
two-place predication (containing two arguments); one-place predication (containing one argument); no-place predication (containing no argument) Ambiguity
Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. According to the linguistic levels on which ambiguity arises, there are two major types of ambiguous expressions: lexical ambiguity structural ambiguity Lexical ambiguity
The multiple meaning of the utterance depends on the meaning of the single word.
Dick finally decided on the boat.
The professor’s appointment was shocking. Structural ambiguity
The multiple meaning of the utterance depends on the sentence structure.
Terry loves his wife and so do I. No smoking section available.
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