英语段落写作
§段落是文章的缩影。写好了段落,就能比较成功地写出较好的文章。经过中学英语基础阶段的学习之后,大学英语的写作重点就从选词造句转移到了联句成段和联段成篇上。进行段落层次上的写作训练,是写好英语文章的关键一环。下面介绍的是段落结构。
§段落( paragraph )是由表达单一中心思想(controlling idea or central idea )的一组句子(包括主题句 topic sentence,推展句supporting sentences及结论句concluding sentence)构成,是文章结构的基本独立单位。本讲我们将就主题句和中心思想这两个方面展开讨论。
主题句与推展句
2.推展句 2.1 主要推展句
§ 主要推展句(major supporting statement)的主要特点是:围绕段落主题句展开的每一个推展句本身都不要求作进一步的说明或证明,句与句之间的关系是相互独立又是互相连接的。
例1:(主题句) There are several factors affecting climate. (推展句1)One factor is the mount of sunlight received. (推展句2)Altitude, or the height above sea level, also determines climate. (推展句3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land. (推展句4)In addition, climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.
主题句指出影响气候的几个因素。然后用四个扩展句说明四种因素。第一种是太阳光的接收量,第二种是海拔高度,第三句和第四句分别是海洋和大气环流因素。
2.2 次要推展句
§
§次要推展句(minor supporting statement)是指对主要推展句作进一步的事实分析和举例说明。它从属于某一个或某几个推展句。
§例2:(主题句)I don‘t teach because teaching is easy for me. (主要推展句1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living: mechanic, carpenter, writer. (主要推展句2)For me, teaching is a red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach profession. (次要推展句1)Red-eye, because I never feel ready to teach no matter how late I stay up preparing. (次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm, because I’m always nervous before I enter the classroom, sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am. (次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach, because I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than usual.
§从属于主要推展句2的三个次要推展句起着解释说明作用,分别解释red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach的含义,这就更加形象生动地证明了 \"teaching is not easy\" 这个主题。
§2.3 主要推展句与次要推展句的关系
主要推展句与次要推展句的关系(relation)基本可以遵循下面的“三部分”(three-part)规则。
1〕每个主要推展句都应该是对主题句中表示主要思想的关键词的直接、明确的说明。
2〕每个次要推展句都应该说明它的主要推展句。
3〕含有讨论说明或分析的问题通常既要有主要推展素材,又要有次要推展素材。
§2.4 写好推展句的方法
主题句及关键词确定后,开始选择和主题有关的信息和素材。实质上,针对关键词测试每一个所选择的素材就是一个分类的过程。有一种常用的方法就是句子展开前加以设问,然后解答,即设问-解答(why-because)的方法。下面我们通过举例来看一看这种分类过程是如何完成的。
§假设 (suppose) Topic sentence: English is an international language?
设问(why) Why can we say English is an international language?
解答(because)
Because: English is spoken by pilots and airport control operators on all the airways of the world.
Because: Over 70 percent of the world's mail is written in English.
Because: More than 60 percent of the world's radio programs are in English.
Because: Pakistan was once one of the British colonies.
Because: Many members of the International Language Society are selected from English-spoken countries.
§ 从上面可以看出,最初的三个推展句是和关键词an international language一致的。第四句和主题句不统一,尽管第四句会成为另一主题句(Many Pakistanis speak English)很好的推展句。第五句说服力不强。
当然,在写成段落时,没有必要在每个句子开头写上 \"because\",但是,在动笔展开句子时,头脑里要想着这个词,这种检验方法能帮助你把注意力集中在某个重心,围绕主题思想层层展开。
上面我们讨论了主要推展句的一种展开方法。而展开次要推展句的方法与主要推展句类似,这里我们就不再复述了
一.段落主题借助具体的细节和原因展开(A paragraph of a general statement supported by specific details)
§一般这类段落先明确地提出主题,紧接着就用一些具体的细节来论述或证明自己的观点。这些具体的细节或是原因,或是现象,总之可以充分证明自己观点的材料都可以拿来用的。下面这个段落,作者就采用了这种方法:
§A foreigner’s first impression of the U.S. is likely to be that ⑴everyone is in a
rush---often under pressure. ⑵ City people always appear to be hurrying to get where they are going, restlessly seeking attention in a store, or elbowing others as they try to complete their shopping. Racing through daytime meals is part of the pace of life in this country. ⑶Working time is considered precious. Others in public eating-places are waiting for you to finish so they, too, can be served and get back to work within the time allowed. ⑷You also find drivers will be abrupt and people will push past you. You will miss smiles, brief conversations, and small exchanges with strangers. Don’t take it personally. ⑸This is because value time highly, and they resent someone else “wasting ”it beyond a certain appropriate point.
§句子⑴是这个段落作者要说明的观点,是段落的中心,段落的主题:美国人给人的第一印象总是匆匆忙忙的。那么表现在什么方面呢?句子⑵⑶⑷分别是三个具体的细节,三种常见的现象。借助于这三个细节,读者可以得到一个很清晰的印象,美国人每天都忙忙碌碌的,原来是这个样子啊。依据句子⑸我们就明白了,因为美国人太珍惜时间了,所以平时才那么紧张。
§这种段落展开的方法,要求作者有比较详实的写作的素材。所以平时应注意观察周围的事物,养成论证自己观点的习惯,多读类似的文章,了解和体会西方人的思维模式。这样写出的文章才有英文的样子。
§为了使段落更富于逻辑性,你可以使用一些思维连接词(thought connectors)比如:firstly, secondly, thirdly, 等等。
§另外,这类段落比较适合写论说文和说明文。
二.段落主题借助于一系列的例子展开(a paragraph of a statement supported by examples)
§
§ 有时候我们提出的一些观点和看法比较抽象或空洞,读者可能很难理解或不肯能完全理解,这样我们可以借助一些例子来对观点加以说明。下面是一段很典型的例子:
§⑴I now know he participate in some things through me, his only son. ⑵When I played ball(poorly), he “played ”too. ⑶When I joined the Navy , he “joined” too. ⑷And when I came home on leave, he saw to it that I visited his office. Introducing me, he was really saying, “this is my son, but it is also me, and I could have done this, too, if things had been different.” Those words were never said aloud.
§父亲通过儿子参加一些社会活动,这个观点(句子⑴)很笼统的,为了使自己的观点更可信,作者给出了几个很详实的例子(句子⑵⑶⑷)。这样就使得段落有血有肉了,可信度强了,可读性也强了。
§有时候,我们展开段落,完全可以用些具体的例子来从当细节的。从这个意义上讲,第一种方法应该包含第二中。由于习惯原因,我们也可以单独把它列为一种段落展开的有效方法。
§这种方法的比较适合写简单的论说文和记叙文。
§三. 段落主题借助于一系列的事情展开(a paragraph of a statement supported by a list of things)
§ 有时候我们的概念很抽象,那么就可以借助概念所包含的子相来加以说明。这个方法与第二种多少有些相似,但例子是一些翔实的行为过程,这里所说的子相大多是名词性短语。我们看看下面这个例子:
§Think about some of your ⑴unforgettable meetings: ⑵an introduction to your future spouse, ⑶a job interview, ⑷an encounter with a stranger.
§这段就是通过一系列的子相⑵⑶⑷来说明母相⑴的,因为子相都是一些具体的,我们亲身经历过的一些场面,所以很容易被读者的观点,这是对抽象或空洞概念的解释。所以要想让读者理解你,读懂你,你要把模糊空洞的概念解释清楚。
§当然对于一些艰涩的概念,我们也可以通过下定义的方法加以解释,以便与读者理解沟通。
§Let’s assume they come from the “unconscious”. This is reasonable, for psychologists use this term to describe mental processes which are unknown to the individual.
§作者用了定义的方法来解释“潜意识”(unconscious)这个词。使那些即使没有心理学知识的读者也可以明白什么是潜意识了。
§我们写段落时,对于那些艰涩概念,可以尝试用这类方法加以解释和说明,已达到与
读者最佳的沟通效果。
§四.段落主题借助于问题-解决模式展开(a paragraph of a general statement supported by a problem-solution pattern)
§写作政论性的文章,其实就是为解决一些社会问题。通常我们会对对解决的方法比较关心,更关心解决的结果如何,并对此做出评价。下面我们看这个例子:
§⑴Speak to your community in a way they can hear. ⑵Many communities have a low literacy rate, making impossible passing this passing out AIDS literature and expecting people to read it. ⑶To solve this problem, ask people in a community who can draw well to create low-literacy AIDS education publications.
§ ⑷These books use simple, hand-drawn pictures of sad faces and happy faces to illustrate ways people can prevent AIDS. ⑸They also show people who look like those we need to educate, since people can relate more when they see familiar faces and language they can understand. ⑹As a result, such books actually have more effect in the communities where they are used than government publications, which cost thousands of dollars more to produce.
§句子⑴是段落的主题,统领两个段落,介绍了一个向社区人们宣传艾滋病的方法。句子⑵告诉我们为什么用这种方法,也就是在宣传过程中遇到了哪些难题。句子⑶⑷⑸介绍了几种解决方法,句子⑹是对这些方法的评价。
§当我们读完这个段落时,或许也会承认这是一个很不错的办法。其实写文章就是说服
人的过程,只要你资料翔实,话说得得体,会被读者认可的,即你的写作是成功的。
§五.段落展开借助于一系列的时间顺序的动作(a paragraph of a set of sequential actions)
§我们叙述一件事情的经过时,一般需要按照动作发生的先后顺序来写,以便给读者一个
§完整的印象。也可以说,一系列的动作描写同样可以表达一个主题。下面这个例子就能很客观地说明这一点。这种段落的展开技巧特别适合讲述故事。但是有一点大家要注意,这些动作不是无序的拼凑,是按照先后顺序发生的,与你要表达的主题的密切相关的。
§ Like most city folks, I am cautious. I scan the street and pathways for anything-or anyone-unusual before pulling into the garage. That night was no exception. But, as I walked out of the garage, KFC chicken in hand, a portly, unshaven young man in a stocking cap and dark nylon jacket emerged from the shrub by the parking pad and put his pistol between my eyes.
§ 这个段落尽管没有主题句,但是我们看完后,我们就明白:尽管我很小心,但还是遭到抢劫了。作者使用了一系列的动作描写,而且是严格按时间顺序写的.
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