（he definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.）
1.2 sound and meaning ：Symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.
1. No enough letters: alphabet from latin 1.3 sound and form ： 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly
3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition
4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling all national character 全民性 1.4 vocabulary
1.5 classification of words
词汇分类
by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock stability 稳定性 basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇 productivity 多产性 基本词汇和非基本词汇 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 nonbasic vocabulary jargon 行话
非基本词汇 slang 俚语
argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 by notion 按概念分： archaism 古语词 content words and functional words neologism 新词 实义词和功能词
neutral in style 文体上中性
native words frequent in use 使用频繁 by origin 按起源分：
本地词 native words and borrowed words
denizens 同化词
本地词和外来词
aliens 异形词
borrowed words translation-loans 译借词
外来词
semantic-loans 借义词
obvious
characteristics 明显的特点
Chapter 2 Development
It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. Prussian 普鲁士语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Balto-Slavic 波罗的海-斯拉夫语 Czech 捷克语 Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语 Russian 俄语 Eastern set： Persian 波斯语
东部诸语族： Bengali 孟加拉国语 Indo-Iranian 印度-伊朗语 Hindi 印地语 Romany 普吉赛语 Scottish 苏格兰语 Armenian 亚美尼亚语 Irish 爱尔兰语 Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语 Welsh 威尔士语
Celtic 凯尔特语
Breton 布里多尼语 2.1 Indo-European
Portuguese 葡萄牙语 印欧语
Spanish 西班牙语
Latin 拉丁语言 French 法语
Italic 意大利语 Italian 意大利语
Western set： Roumanian 罗马尼亚语
西部诸语族： Norwegian 挪威语
Scandinavian languages Icelandic 冰岛语
Hellenic 希腊语 ——Greek 斯堪的纳维亚语 Danish 丹麦语
Swedish 瑞典语
German 德语
Germanic 日耳曼语
Dutch 荷兰语
Flemish 佛兰德语
English 英语
50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇 Old English (450--1150) —— Anglo-Saxon
Highly inflected 高度转折 古英语 盎格鲁-撒克逊语
complex endings 复杂的结尾
vowel changes 元音变化
French words 法语词汇 2.2 Historical review Middle English (1150-1500)
leveled endings 水平结尾 历史概述 中古英语 Borrow 借词
Early Modern English (1500-1700) new words 新词 Modern English (1500-up to now) 早期现代英语 no endings 无结尾 现代英语 Late Modern English (1700-up to the present) 晚期现代英语
from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。
从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言。
the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ％ ） 现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（ 45 ％ ）
three main sources 2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary social, economic and political changes（11 ％ ） 三种主要来源 社会，经济和政治的变化（ 11 ％ ）
the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ％ ） 其它文化和语言的影响（ 24 ％ ）
Creation 创词 —— formation of new words, most important 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development
semantic change 旧词新义 —— old form with new meaning, new usages
borrowing 借词 —— vital role
Chapter 3 Word Formation 3.1 Morphemes 词素
Definition: These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is \"the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words\".词素是“构词中最小功能单位”。 3.2 Allomorphs 语素变体
Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. 'They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning'. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 词素是一个音素发音的语素。词素是真正能发音的最小的意义载体。 monomorphemic words：can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. morpheme 单语素词 在句子中独立起作用 allomorphs：the alternative morphs of the same morpheme 词素变体 可替换语素（音标）的相同词素 Independent 独立
free morpheme —— free root free grammatical units 自由的语法单位 自由语素 自由词根 3.3 Types of Morphemes complete meanings 完整的意义
bound root ：fundamental meaning
bound morpheme 粘着词根 基本意义
粘着语素 Inflectional affix —— attached to the end of words 附在词尾
affix 曲折词缀 Grammatical relationships 文法关系 词缀（附加物） attach, modify prefix 附着，修饰 前缀
derivational affix
Suffix 3.4 Root and Stem 派生词缀
后缀 affix
The affixation and compounding involve different word-forming elements 词缀 词缀法和混合涉及不同的词语构成因素 root or stem 词根或词干
Chapter 4 Word-formation affixation (30%-40%) 词缀法（ 30 ％ -40 ％ ） compounding (28%-30%) 复合法（ 28 ％ -30 ％ ） Word formation clipping 删节 conversion (26%) 转化法（ 26 ％ ） 构词的方式 shortening (8%-10%) 缩略法 （ 8 ％ -10 ％ ） acronymy 首字母缩略法 blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼缀法和其他方法（ 1 ％-5% ）
prefixation 前缀法 —— before the word, modify the meaning 前置，改词意
4.1 Affixation 词缀法 falls into two subclasses（子类）:
suffixation 后缀法 —— after the word, change word class 后置，改词性
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives.
词缀法可定义为通过给词干加结构词词缀或派生词缀构成新词的一种构词方法。用这种方法构成的词叫派生构词。因为通过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词”。 Negative prefixes 否定前缀 Reversative prefixes 逆反前缀 Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀 Prefixes of degree or size 程度大小前缀 Prefixes of orientation and attitude 倾向态度前缀
4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法 Locative prefixes 方位前缀
we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups 我们可以在语义基础上将前缀分为九类
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前缀法是在词干上加上前缀构词的一种方法，前缀一般不改变词干的词类，只对词干的意义进行修饰。
Prefixes of time and order 时间顺序前缀 Number prefixes 数字前缀 Miscellaneous prefixes 多种前缀
a. Concrete 具体名词 –eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-ter 1) Denominal nouns 名词派生来的名词
b. Abstract 抽象名词 –age,-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,-ing,-ism,-ship
a. The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely
nouns denoting people, -ant，-ee，-ent，-er（-or）
下面这组后缀加在动词词干上构成新词，主要表示人，。。。
Noun suffixes
b. Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely
2) Deverbal nouns 动词派生来的名词 名词后缀
abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc：-al，-age，
-ance，-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,-ion)，-ence，-ing，-ment
3) De-adjective nouns :-ity,-ness
下面这组后缀加在动词词干上，主要构成抽象名词，表示动作、
由形容词转化为名词
结果、过程、状态等。。。
4) Noun and adjective suffixes :-ese,-an,-ist
名词和形容词后缀
1) Denominal suffixes：-ed,-ful,-ish,-less,-like,-ly,-y 4.1.2 Suffixation
名词派生的后缀（加名词后） 后缀法 Adjective suffixes 形容词后缀
2) Deverbal suffixes:-able（-ible），-ive（-ative，-sive）
动词派生的后缀（加动词后）
Adverb suffixes: -ly,-ward (s),-wise 副词后缀 Verb suffixes：-ate,-en,- (i)fy,-ize (-ise) 动词后缀
Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem .Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.
后缀法是在词干加上后缀来构成新词。不像主要改变词干意义的前缀，后缀的只有很小语义作用，其主要功能是改变词干的语法功能。换句话说，他们主要是改变词性。
4.2 Compounding 复合法
Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.
复合法，同样也被称作合成法,是指由两个或者更多的词干相结合而构成的新词，此种方式形成的词被称为复合词。所以，复合词是“由多于一个以上的词干组成的，同时具有一个词的语法功能和意义功能的词汇单位”。
4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特征 1).Phonetic features 语音特点 —— first element stress 第一个构词成分重音 Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects: 2).Semantic features 语义特点 —— unity, as one word 统一性，如同个单词 复合词和自由词组不同于三个方面 3).Grammatical features 语法特点 —— single grammatical role 独立的语法作用
Noun compounds 名词性复合词 4.4.2 Formation of Compounds复合词的形成 Adjective compounds 形容词性复合词
conversion 反转 Verb compounds 动词复合词 backformation -er, -ing, -ion 逆序法
(1) State (of mind or sensation) 状态（心理或感觉） (2) Event or activity 事件或行动
4.3 Conversion 转化法
1) Verb to noun (3) Result of the action 行动的结果
动词转名词
(4) Doer of the action 行动的发出者
1.Conversion to noun
(5) Tool or instrument to do the action with 行动的工具▪ Phrasal verbs to nouns: Keep original order (6) Place of the action 转化为名词
Invert the verb and particle: p+v 行动的地点
动词短语转名词：保持原有顺序，
动词小品词出现反转
2) Adjective to noun (1) Words fully converted 完全转化的词 形容词转名词
(2) Words partially converted 部分转化的词
(3) Miscellaneous conversion 多种转化 (1) To put in or on N 放入名词
1）Noun to verb (2) To give N or to provide with N
名词变动词 (3) 提供名词 To remove N from (4) To do with N 从……消除名词 (5) 用名词做……
2. Conversion to verbs To be or act as N (6) 象名词一样起作用 To make or change into N 转化为动词
(7)
To send or go by N 变成名词 用名词送去
2）Adjective to verb
形容词变动词
3.Miscellaneous conversion
（1）Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音变浊辅音
混合反转
（2）Initial to end stress 字首重音变字尾重音
Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class, without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation.
转类法是将一种词类转化为另一种词类构成新词的方法。这些词在语法意义上是新词。既然这些词在形态结 构上不便，只在功能上有变化，这一转类过程也叫做功能转换。一般认为，转类法是单词不添加词缀而直接 转化为一个新词的派生构词的过程。这一过程由于不加词缀，所以又称零派生。
1. head + tail 头＋尾 2. head + head 头＋头 4.4 blending 拼缀法，混合词 blends fall into four major groups:
3. head + word 头＋整词 4. word + tail 整词＋尾
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words. 拼缀法是通过合并两个词的某些部分或一个词与另外一个词的另一部分相加起来构成新词。 以此种方式构成的词被称作为拼缀词或拼级词。
4.5 Clipping截短法，删减法
There are four common types of clipping:
1. Front clipping 前删
2. Back clipping 后删
3. Front and back clipping 前后删
4. Phrase clipping 删短语
Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping. 另一个常见的构词法时将原词的一部分截去，只用剩下来的一部分构成新词，这种方法叫截短法。 1. Letters represent full words
字母代表所有词
2. Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word Initialisms 首字母缩略词
字母代表复合词或者只是一个词的几部分
4.6 Acronym 首字母缩词法
Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. 一个字母一个字母念。
Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. Acronyms 首字母拼音词
首字母拼音词是由字母组合在一起作为一个标准单词拼音的词。
Abstract nouns 抽象名词 Human nouns 人类名词 4.7 Back-formation 逆构法 Compound nouns and others 复合名词和其他
Adjectives 形容词
Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs. 逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。由逆构法生成的词多半是动词。
Formation of new words by removing the supposed suffixes Style: informal 非正式 通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式
names of people 人名
names of places 地名
4.8 words from proper nouns 专有名词转化而来的词
Style: vivid, impressive, thought-provoking 生动，印象深刻，发人深省的
names of books 书名 trade names 商业名称
▪ 定义模式：it’s the formation of new words by doing…(doing是主要动词，可替换为add, cut, join/combine, change) ▪ 分类：
1)词的自身长度变化(变形)：加减法
加：affixation，减：clipping, back-formation
2)词间组合：整体组合：compound; 部分组合：blending; 字母组合：acronymy
3)词的自身变化:变性:conversion; 变态/变位:words from proper names (普通化/特殊变为普通)
Chapter 5 Word Meaning 词义 Reference 参照 5.1 Meanings of meaning Concept 概念 Sense 语感
Words are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 词只是符号，许多词只有获得参照后才有意义。参照是语言与周围世界的关系。
Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. 意义与概念有紧密的联系，但并不等同。他们都直接与参照相关，都是词的概念，但属于不同的范畴。
Generally speaking, the meaning of ‘meaning’ is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’. Unlike reference, ‘sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language. Every word that-has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) 一般来说，‘意义'的意义也许就是“语感” 。不像参照，“语感”表示的是语言内部的关系。有意义的每个词都有语感，但并不是每个词都有参照物。 Onomatopoeic Motivation 象声动机 ：sounds suggest meanings, imitating natural sounds or noises 声音暗指意义，模仿自然的声音 Morphological Motivation 形态动机 ：the meanings are the sum total of the morphemes combined 组合词素的综合 the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word 词的概念所指的精神联系 5.2 Motivation 动机 Semantic Motivation 语义动机 the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense 文字语义和寓意间的联系 Etymological Motivation 词源动机 ：the meanings often relate to the origin 与来源有关
Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 动机是语言符号和它意义之间的关系。
Grammatical Meaning
语法意义 Conceptual Meaning 5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的类型 概念意义 Lexical Meaning 1. Connotative meaning 内涵意义 词法的意义 2. Stylistic meaning 文体意义 Associative Meaning appreciative 褒义 3. Affective meaning 情感意义 联系意义 pejorative 贬义
4. Collocative meaning 搭配意义
Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. 词义并非是成分单一的，而是由不同部分组合的复合物。这些在熟悉的术语中通常称作不同类型的意义。
Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field 语义关系和语义场
polysemy 歧义
homonymy 同音异义
synonymy 同义 sense relations
antonymy 反义 语义关系
hyponymy 上下位关系
6.1 Polysemy 歧义
Definition:the words with more than one senses or which can be used to express more meanings 一词多义。 diachronic approach. 历时的角度: growth and development 成长和发展 primary meaning 基本义----derived meaning 派生义
6.1.1Two approches to Polysemy: synchronic approach. 共时的角度: coexistence 共存 歧义的两个角度 central meaning 中心义----sencondary meaning 次要义 (secondary ----sometimes dominant 有时占优势) radiation辐射型: center, every direction like rays; independent; back to central meaning. e.g: neck (多个意思同时并存)
6.1.2 Two Processes of Development: concatenation连锁型: move away from first sense by shifts; 发展的两个过程 no connection with original meaning; Later meaning is related to preceding one. eg. : treacle, candidate （剩下一个意思）
6.2 homonymy 同音异义
Definition: words have different meanings but identical sounds or spelling 声音拼写相同意义不同。 Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling 完全同形同音异义词
6.2.1 Types of Homonyms Homographs: identical spelling 同音异义的种类 同形异音异义词 Homophones: identical sound---most common 同音异形异义词
6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms ：changes in sound and spelling; Borrowing; Shortening 同音异义的起源 声音和拼写的变化，借词，缩短 Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling 完全同形同音异义词
Homographs: identical spelling 6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants
同形异音异义词 同音异义词和歧义词的区别
Homophones: identical sound---most common
同音异形异义词
6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms ：create puns for desired effect --- humour, sarcasm, ridicule 同音异义词的修饰特点 为预期的效果制造双关语——幽默，讽刺，嘲笑
6.3 Synonymy 同义词
6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词定义
Synonyms can be defined as word different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. 同义词可定义为在读音和拼写上不同但在意义却很相似或完全一样的词。
6.3.2 Types of Synonyms Absolute synonyms 绝对同义词
同义词的类型
Relative synonyms 相对同义词
Borrowing 借词
Dialects and regional English 方言和区域词
6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms
Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语
同义词的来源 Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合
6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms
同义词的辨别
1. Difference in denotation 指示义不同
2. Difference in connotation 隐含义不同 3. Difference in application 应用不同
6.4 Antonymy 反义词
1. Contradictory terms 矛盾词语
2. Contrary terms 对立词语 6.4.1Types of Antonyms
3. Relative terms 关联词语 反义词的类型
Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.
反义词在意义对立的基础上分类。
A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym..
多义词可以拥有一个以上反义词 6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms
Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 反义词的一些特征
反义词的语义内涵相互区别。
Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
对立词语是分级的反义词，在程度上区别，因此每个都有它们自己的反义词。
To define the meaning 定义词义
To express economically the opposite of a particular thought 简练地表达某一特定思想的对立面
6.4.3 The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用
To for antithesis form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together
将对立的思想拼合在一起来形成对偶
To serve stylistic purpose 去达到风格的目的
6.5 Hyponymy 上下位关系
superordinate terms 上位关系
subordinate terms 下位关系
Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. 上下义关系涉及语义包容的关系。也就是说，一个更具体的词的意义被包含在另外一个更一般的的词的意义之中。
6.6 Semantic Field 语义场
Definiton: word store is composed around a number of meaning areas. 围绕着一定数量的意义区域构成。 Function: words in each field define one another. 每个语义场中的词语义关联和定义其他的。
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning 词义的变化 extension 延展
narrowing 缩小
degradation 降级
7.1Types of Changes 变化类型
elevation 升级
transfer 转移
7.2 Causes of Changes 变化原因 1. Historical reason 历史原因
7.2.1 Extra-linguistic Factors 语言以外的因素
2. Class reason 阶级原因
3. Psychological reason 心理原因
7.2.2 Linguistic Factors 语言因素：shortend phrase; borrowings; competition of native words; analogy 短语，借词，本地词竞争，类推
Chapter 8 Meaning & Context 意义和背景 8.1 Types of Context 背景类型
8.1.1Extra-linguistic Context —— non-linguistic situation, cultural background
1. Lexical context 词法背景
8.1.2 Linguistic Context
2. Grammatical context 句法背景 8.2 The Role of Context 背景的功能
Definition 定义
8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity 歧义的消除
Explanation 解释
8.2.2 Indication of Referents 指代物的说明 Example 例子 8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word-meaning Synonymy 同义
Antonymy 反义 推导词义的线索供应
Hyponymy 上下位关系
Relevant details 相关的细节
Word structure 词语结构
非语言背景 非语言状况，文化背景
Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语
Idiom—idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences， which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. Strictly speaking， idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. In a broad sense，idioms may include colloquialisms，catchphrases， slang expressions，proverbs，etc.习语由固定的短语和短句组成，它们是所涉及的语言所独有的，而且带有本族的文化和观念。严格来讲，习语是不能从其个体成分的文字意思立即理解其意义的，从广义上讲，习语可以包括口语词、时髦词、俚语、谚语等。
9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 习语的特点 9.1.1 Semantic Unity 语义的整体性 1. The constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. The structure is fixed. 首先，习语的组成部分成分不可替换。 2. The word order cannot be inverted or changed.习语的语序不能倒装或改变。 3. The constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to，not even an article. 习语的组成成分不能删除或增加。 9.1.2 Structural Stability 结构稳定性 4. Many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.很多习语在语法上是不可分析的。 5. the idomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of scale.习语的习语性是分等级的，而且可能最好从 等级上来研究。 6. The fixity of idioms depends on the idiomaticity. The more idiomatic the idioms，the more fixed the structure.习语的稳定性在 于其习语性程度。
Idioms nominal in nature （名词性习语）
Idioms adjective in nature（形容词性习语） 9.2 Classification of Idioms Phrasal verbs 短语动词 Idioms verbal in nature（动词性习语） Verb phrases 动词短语 Idioms adverbial in nature （副词性习语）
Sentence Idioms（句式习语）
The standard of Classification of idioms is The criterion of ’grammatical function’. 习语的分类标准是语法功能的标准
Colloquialisms 口语词
9.3 Use of Idioms 习语的使用
Stylistic Features 语体色彩 Slang 俚语 Literary expressions 书面表达式 Alliteration 头韵（法） Phonetic manipulation 语音运用 Rhyme 韵脚 Reiteration 重复（同义的重复） Lexical manipulation 词汇运用 Repetition 重复 Rhetorical features 修辞特征 Juxtaposition （of antonyms）邻接（反义词） Simile 明喻 Metaphor「n.暗语，隐喻」 Figures of speech 修辞手法 Metonymy「n.借代」 Synecdoche「n.借代，提喻法」 Personification （拟人） Euphemism （委婉语） Replacement 替换 Addition or deletion 增词或减词 Variation of idioms 习语的变化 Position-shifting 移位 Shorting 缩略法 Dismembering 肢解
Monolingual and Bilingual Dictionaries 单语和双语词典 Chapter 10 English Dictionary 英语词典 Linguistic and Encyclopedic Dictionaries 语言和百科全书词典
10.1 Types of Dictionaries 字典的种类 Unabridged dictionaries 未删节词典 Unabridged, Desk and Pocket 未删节版，案头和口袋词典 Desk dictionaries 案头词典 Pocket dictionaries 口袋词典 Specialized Dictionaries 特殊词典 Monolingual or bilingual 单语或双语 General or specialized 普通或特殊
Choice of Dictionaries 词典的选择 British or American 英式或美式 Early or late 早期或最新 Spelling 拼写 Pronunciation 发音 Definition 定义 Spelling 拼写 Pronunciation 发音 10.2 Use of Dictionaries 词典的使用 Usage 用法
Definition 定义 Content of the Dictionary 词典的内容 Grammar 语法 Usage 用法
Usage notes and language notes 使用信息和语言信息 Etymological information 词源信息 Supplementary matter 补充 Use of the Dictionary 词典的使用
Clear grammar codes 清晰的语法代码 10.3 Three Good General Dictionaries 三种最好的普通词典
Usage notes 使用注解 10.3.1 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE) New Edition (1987)
Language notes 语言注解 朗曼当代词典新版（1987）
Definition 定义 10.3.2Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (CCELD) (1987)
Extra column 额外栏 柯林斯合作英语词典
Usage examples 使用范例
10.3.3 A Chinese-English Dictionary (Revised Edition) (CED) (1995)
汉英词典（修订版）ced1995
为进一步加强对考生综合应用能力的考察，实现课程考核目标，结合近年来考试情况的反馈意见，自2011年4月考试起，根据全国考办要求对《《英语词汇学》（课程代码00832）课程的试卷结构进行调整。调整后的《英语词汇学》（课程代码00832）试卷结构如下：
大题序号 题型 一 单项选择题 二 填空题 三 名词解释 四 简答题 五 论述题 合计 题量 30 10 5 4 2 51 每小题分值 1 1.5 3 5 10 100 大题总分值 30 15 15 20 20 6.课程中各章在试卷中的分数比例 第一、二章 15% 第三、四章 20% 第五、六章 25% 第七章 10% 第八章 10% 第九章 15% 第十章 5%
4.题型分值结构及预计答题时间 项目 分值 时间（分钟）
(1)单项选择题 30分（每小题2分） 20 (2)教程内容填空题 10分（每小题2分） 15
(3)匹配题 10分（每小题1分） 15
5.认知领域能力层次要求的分数比例 识记（A） 20% 领会（B） 30% 简单应用（C） 30% 综合应用（D） 20%
(4)判断填空题 10分（每小题1分） 20
(5)术语解释题 10分（每小题2分） 20
(6)简答题 12分（每小题4分） 30
(7)分析题 18分（每小题9分） 30
一、《英语词汇学》的性质
英语词汇学是一门有关英语词汇的学问，是普通高等院校英语专业普遍开设的专业知识课程。因为这门课程实用性强，对学好英语语言很重要，所以被列为高等教育自学考试英语语言文学专业本科段选修课。
英语词汇学是专业理论课，它运用现代语言学的有关理论，研究英语语言中的词汇问题。该课程介绍“词”的基本知识，讨论词的形态结构及构成方式， 探讨词的意义及语义关系，阐述英语词汇的发展变化乃至相关的词典知识。学习本课程的目的是对英语词汇具有比较系统、比较完整的知识，较深入地了解英语词汇 的现状及其历史演变过程，并能对现代英语词汇发展中出现的各种词汇现象做出分析和解释，提高对英语词语的理解、阐释和综合运用的能力。由此可见，词汇学绝 对不是一般意义上的“学词汇”。 二、内容的安排及重难点
《英语词汇学》教程共十章，其涵盖的内容可以分为五大块：一、英语词汇的基本常识及其来源和发展；二、英语词汇的形态结构及构成方式；三、词的 意义、关系及变化；四、英语习语；五、英语词典。第一、二、三、四章主要讨论英语词汇的形式；第五、六、七、八章集中探讨词的意义；第九章论述习语，即 “多成分”词语；第十章研究词典。各章尽管长短不同，繁简各异，但每章都有一定数量的知识点，只是多寡不一。至于哪些章节重要，哪些章节不重要很难确定。 应该说每个知识点都重要，知识点多的章节比知识点少的更重要。不过，就其实用性而言，还是有区别的。英语词汇的构成方式、词的意义、语义关系、意义与语境 等章节相比之下更为实用，更能锻炼语言综合应用能力。
就其难易度而言，亦因人而异。有的章节难是因为涉及的专业术语多，定义多，难以识记，如第一章、第二章等；有的章节含有大量的例词，难记住，如 第三章、第八章、第九章等；还有的是概念较为复杂，领会起来较难，如第三章、第五章等。因为考生各自的背景不同，知识面有别，阅读理解能力各异，所以某些 人认为难的章节，对另外一些人可能较容易，故不能一概而论。在学习过程中，对自己感觉难的章节多下些工夫。有的术语概念，读一遍可能朦朦胧胧，读两遍也许 有所领悟，多读几遍其义会自然明白。 术语英汉对照表的利用。教材后附有术语英汉对照表，主要目的是为了帮助阅读和理解。知道英语专业名称的汉语意思既可以加深记忆，也可以帮助理解。还有一个更重要的用途，往往不被大家注意。术语英汉对照表基本上囊括了教材中主要知识点。尤其是名词或名词词组，每一个都是一个知识点。学完教材后，不妨把这些专业术语作为一种自测手段。如按照字母顺序逐一复习。对每一个术语都想一想其概念、定义，试着用英语表述，并能回忆一两个例子（书中的例子）。如果忘了，再翻书复习。假如能按这种要求把所有的名词术语记住，基本上可以说把教材弄懂搞清楚了。
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)
Definition
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or form of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct. Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. Stylistics is the study of style. It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in particular context for special effects.
Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference.
The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：
English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. In the meantime, it is a practical course, for t has something to do with words.
English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.
Difference between synchronic and diachronic
The synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given time; it is special descriptive lexicology that deals with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time.
The diachronic approach deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time; it is special historical lexicology that deals with the evolution of the vocabulary units of a language as time passes. Example:
From a synchronic point of view, the word wife, for example, now means “a married woman, esp. in relation to her husband” without any consideration of the changes in the past.
But if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning: the word “wife” evolved from the Old English from “wif”, meaning “woman”, but later it became specialized in the course of development to the modern meaning “a married woman”.
Why is English lexicology much helpful to English teachers?
Some knowledge of lexicology will help teachers to teach materials, esp. those concerning words in a more effective way. They will be able to make use of the different sense relations to group vocabulary, interpret words and explain meanings to the students. Their knowledge of dictionaries will prove invaluable in their study and teaching as well.
The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：
English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)
The reason for a student to study English lexicology：
According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.
A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.
Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
Definition
The definition of a word comprises the following points: 1. A minimal free from of a language 2. A sound unity 3. A unit of meaning
4. A form that can function alone in a sentence.
(A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.) “Vocabulary” is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.
Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine: photoscanning, hepatitis, indigestion, penicillin. Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves. Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant (shoptalk of any sub-group), jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. Functional words is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.
Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes. Borrowed words: words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowing in simple terms. Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language. Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Translation-loads are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language. Semantic-loans: words whose meanings are borrowed and whose forms are not borrowed.
Explain the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.
There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning, and the connections between them are arbitrary and conventional. In other words, a cluster of sounds refers to something because the speakers of the language have agreed to do so. The arbitrariness and convention of the relationship can be justified in other ways. For example, different language use different sounds to refer to the same thing, 妇女 in Chinese becomes woman in English.
Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因
（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes
（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary
How do you classify English words?
English words can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, content words and functional words by notion, and native words and borrowed words by origin.
4 Types of loan words:
1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))
2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头) 3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see (from China) 4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed
Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us. Illustrate with examples the respects the words relating to.
Words of the basic word stock are usually related to the following respects: 1. Natural phenomena: rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon, etc.
2. Human body and relations: head, foot, hand, father, brother, etc. 3. Names of plants and animals: pine, grass, tree, sheep, cat, dog, etc. 4. Action, size, domain, state: come, go, good, young, cold, black, etc. 5. Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions: one, you, etc.
What are the major differences between basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary? 1. Basic word stock possesses five obvious characteristics, but nonbasic vocabulary doesn’t.
2. Basic word stock forms the common core of the language, whereas nonbasic vocabulary doesn’t belong to the common core of the language.
Why should we say that” all national character” is the most important of all features among the five?
Not all the words of the basic word stock have the five characteristics. Take pronouns and numerals for example, they enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability.
What is the difference between content words and functional words?
Content words denote clear notions, e. g. objects, phenomena, action, quality state, degree, quantity, etc. functional words are empty words or form words whose chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences. Functional words do not have notions of their own.
Why do we say “English is a heavy borrower”? Please justify it.
English owes 80% of its vocabulary to other languages. In fact, the English vocabulary contains words from all the major languages of the world. No other language of the world has borrowed so heavily. Therefore, the name “heavy borrower” is appropriate.
Supply two examples to illustrate that the influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.
Pig/pork, sheep/mutton. In Old English, animals and their meat shared the same name. With the Norman Conquest and borrowing of corresponding French words, the English words were kept only for live animals and the French words for the animals killed and brought to the table.
Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary
Definition
Inflected language: The prehistoric Indo-European parent language is thought to be a highly inflected language. It was a language in which the various forms of a given word showed its relationship to other words in a sentence.
Germanic is a term used to refer to a branch of the Indo-European language family, which consists of English, German, Dutch, etc. Middle English: it refers to the language used from 1150 to 1500. Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.
Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary.
What are eight principal language groups in the Indo-European language family?
They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.
Explain the three different periods of the English development.
1. Old English (450-1150). After the romans, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came in great numbers. Soon they permanent control of the land,
which was to be called England. Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the celtic. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50000-60000 words. It was a highly inflected.
2. Middle English (1150-1500). The Norman Conquest in 10 started a continual flow of French words into English and Norman, French became the polite speech.
But by the end of the 13th century, English gradually came back.
3. Modern English (1500-up to now). modern English began with the establishment of printing in England, in Modern English, English has evolved from a synthetic
language to the present analytic language from all major.
Leorn – ian – lern – en – learn
Above is the change of “learn” from Old English through Middle English to Modern English. What can you conclude from the viewpoint of the development of English vocabulary?
In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.
As far as growth of resent-day English vocabulary is concerned, what are the three main sources of new words? 1. The rapid development of modern science and technology; 2. Social, economic and political changes;
3. The influence of other cultures and languages.
Enumerate the major modes of modern vocabulary development.
1. Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements;
2. Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many
more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary;
3. Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.
The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群） The Eastern set:
(1)The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. (2)The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc. (3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian. (4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian. The Western set:
(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek. (6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc. (7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc. (8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.
The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:
1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language. 2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections
3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.
Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):
1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式) 2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words. 3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words
Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words
Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning
Type of Morpheme(词素的分类)
（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).
（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀) Affixes can be put into two groups:
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）
Morpheme(词素) Bound root prefix bound derivational
affix suffix inflectional
Root and stem（词根和词干）
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法) 1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.
（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems. 1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey) 2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open) 3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-， mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)
4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight
5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear
6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary) 7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)
8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages) 9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman) (2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. 1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes
2.Compounding复合法 （also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Compounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid) Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）
（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot （2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head （3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep
3.Conversion转类法
Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）
4.Blending拼缀法
Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN
5.Clipping截短法
Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：
1).Front clippings删节前面 (phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings删节后面 (dorm from dormitory)
3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)
6.Acronymy首字母缩写法
Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation) （2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)
7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）
Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)
8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):
Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）
Chapter 5 Word Meaning
The meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)
Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.
Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.
Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.
2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect. 3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)
4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather
Types of meaning(词义的类别)
1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context) 2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）
(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)
Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义) 1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.
2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. [4types:
（1） Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as
connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)
（2） Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.
（3） Affective（感情意义） ：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒
义和贬义appreciative & pejorative
（4） Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]
Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场） Polysemy（多义关系）
Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:
1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.
2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.
Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）: 1. radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings
proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)
2. concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from its first sense by
successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)
3. In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later
meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.
4. They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes
concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other. Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别) 1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. 2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见) 3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)
1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long) 2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball ) 3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)
The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：
1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.
2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.
3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.
Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.
Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .
Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) : (1) Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e.
both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ]
(2) relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different
shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)
Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) : 1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase) 2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）
3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.
4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand. Discrimination of Synonyms
(1) difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil,
want-wish-desire)
(2) difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the
same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )
(3) difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. They form different
collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)
Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. Types of Antonyms:
1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)
2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other. 3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）
Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):
1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)
2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym 3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）
4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)
The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）
1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.
2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐) 3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./
more haste, less speed.)
Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal
Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.
Semantic Field(语义场)
Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.
e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’) The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language. e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐， 妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变
Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.
Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)
1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)
2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]
3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]
4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come
to used in derogatory（贬损的） sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]
5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.
Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)
1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素): 1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.
2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.
3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons. 2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system. 1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier 2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast 3)analogy类推:
Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境
Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.
Two types of context（语境的种类）
1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )
2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类： 1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do) 2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)
The role of context(语境的作用)
1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)
1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.
2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity
如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little 2.Indication of referents(限定所指)
如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context 3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义) 1)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy 5)antonymy
6)hyponymy（上下义关系） 7)relevant details 8)word structure
Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语
Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.
Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点） 1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.
The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom. 2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable. 1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced
2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed
3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article. 4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable
The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯
Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）
1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)
2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语 （as poor as a church mouse） 3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语 （look into）
4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语 （tooth and nail 拼命） 5 .sentence idioms 句式习语 （never do things by halves）
Use of idioms（习语的使用） 1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）： 1） colloquialisms（俗语） 2） slang （俚语）
3） literary expressions（书面表达）
The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.
2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)
1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）： （1）alliteration头韵法 （2）rhyme尾韵法
2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）
（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举 [scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]
（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there]
3.figures of speech（修辞格） （1）simile明喻 （2）metaphor暗喻
（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen （4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread （5）Personification拟人法
（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die) （7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of trouble
Variations of idioms(习语的变异形式)： 1.addition增加 2.deletion删除
3.replacement替换
4.position-shifting位置转移 5.dismembering分解
Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典
Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.
Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):
1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的
(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.
(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)
2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）
（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的
（2）Encyclopedic dictionary: 1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.
2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia ( 3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典) （1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) （2）Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000] （3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。about 50,000 entries or fewer 4.Specialized dictionaries（专用词典） concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects. Use of the dictionaries(词典的使用) 1 read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary 2 read the guide to the use of the dictionary Content of the dictionary（词典的内容） 1. spelling 2. pronunciation 3. definition 4. usage 5. grammar 6. usage notes and language notes使用注释和语言注释 7. etymological information词源信息 8. supplementary matter补充事项 9. Three good general dictionaries （3本常用字典） 1.Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition(1987)《朗文当代英语词典》 新版：特征①clear grammar codes ②usage notes ③language notes 2.Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 《科林斯合作英语词典》：特征：①definition-in full sentences ②extra column-deal with grammar information ③usage examples-to show its meanings and usages 3.A Chinese-English dictionary (revised edition) (CED)(1995)《汉英字典修订版》：首版1978年。 （1）has an addition of 800 single character entries and of 18000 multi-character entries including catchphrases, sayings and proverbs. （2）revised some old entries （3）keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the dictionary easy to use （4）boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its Chinese items. 因篇幅问题不能全部显示，请点此查看更多更全内容